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THE 



pi^tai^ial ^iiii#iiiti$ 



OF 



ANIMATED NATURE. 




VOLUME 11. 



BIRDS. REPTILES. MOLLUSCA. INSECTS. 



LONDON:. 
G. COX, 18, KING STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 



PRICE EIGHTEEN SHILLINGS BOUND IN CLOTH. 



London : Printed by William Ci'OWBa, and Sons, Stamford Street 



COIfTENTS OF VOLUME IL 



Frontispiece — The Boa Constrictor. 



BIRD S — continued. 

D«)criptiona. PigM. 

fetraonidoe (Grouse and Partridges) . . . .' . 1 — 4 

Cracidae (Curassows) 6 — 

Megapodid% (Megapodes) 6 — 7 

Struthionidie (Ostriches) 8 — 11 

Apteryx 11—12 

Dodo 18—14 

Bustards 15 — 

CharadriadsB (Plovers) 16—23 

RecurvirostridsB (Avocets) 23 — 26 

Phalaropidse (Phalaropes) 26 — 

Rallidse (Coots, Rails, &c.) . .- . . . • . 26—28 

Palamedeidae (Jacanas) 29 — 30 

Gruidae (Cranes, Herons, &c.) 30 — 36 

Plataleidae (Spoonbills) 37—38 

Phoenicopteridae (Flamingoes) ...... 38—39 

Natatores 39 — 

Anatidae (Swans, Ducks, Geese, &c.) .... 39 — 54 

Colymbidae (Divers, Grebes, &c.) 54 — 56 

Alcadee (Auks, Guillemots, and Puffins) . . . 57 — 59 

SpheniscidsE (Penguins) 59—62 

Procellaridaj (Puffins, Petrels, &c.) .... 62—63 

Uridae (Gulls, Terns, &c.) 63-66 

Pelecanidae (Pelicans, Cormorants, &c.). . . 66 — 71 

Additional specimens of Birds, &c 71 — 



REPTILES. 

Chelonia, or Tortoises 73 — 79 

Sauria (Lizards, Crocodiles, &c.) 79 — 103 

Ophidia (SerpenU) 103—107 

Col ubridae (Colubrine Snakes) 107—114 

Poisonous Snakes 114-^123 

Marine Snakes . 123 — 

Snakes, various 123 — 

Amphibia 123—135 

FISHES. 

Fishes, general observations upon 138 — 139 

Acanthopterygious Fishes 139 — 150 

Malacopterygious Fishes 150 — 172 

Cartilaginous Fishes 175 — 



Illustrations. 

Nos. 

1773—1780 
1781—1785 
1786—1793 
1794—1813 
1814—1816 
1817—1824 
1825—1830 
1831—1866 
1867—1871 
1872—1874 
1875—1881 
1882—1888 
1889—1926 
1927—1929 
1930—1936 

1937 
1938—2014 
2015-2018 
2019—2029 
2030—2035 
2036—2046 
2047—2058 
2059—2078 
2079—2087 



2088—2116 
2117—2238 
2239—2248 
2249—2272 
2273-2307 
2308—2309 
2310—2313 
2314—2369 



2370—2377 
2378—2417 
2418—2496 
2497—2505 



MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. OR HETERO- 
GANGLIATA. 

Cuttle-fishes 177—187 2506—2585 

Pteropods 187—191 2586—2594 

Gastropods (as Slugs and Univalve Shells) . . 191—194 — — 



Descriptima. Pwm. 

Pulmonobranchiata 194—199 

Nudibranchiata 199 — 206 

Inferobranchiata . • 206 — 

Tectibranchiata 206—210 

Heteropoda 210 — 

Pectinibranchiata 210—243 

Tubulibranchiata . . . ^ 243—246 

Scutibranchiata 246—247 

Cyclobranchiata 247—251 

Conchifera (Bivalve-shelled MoUusks) . . . 251-287 

Tunicata (Tunicate MoUusks) 289—291 

Brachiopoda 291 — 

Cirrhopoda 291—298 



[11n«tnt*inna. 

No.. 

2595—2634 
2636—2649 
2650—2651 
2652—2674 
2675—2678 
2679—2815 
2816—2821 
2822—2836 
2837—2858 
2859—3030 
3031—3047 
3048—3065 
3066—3033 



ARTICULATA, CUV. (HOMOGANGLIATA. 

Owen). 

Crustacea, observations on 298—302 3094—3103 

Decapoda, Brachyurous 302—314 3104—3189 

Decapoda, Anomurous 314—316 3190—3207 

Decapoda, Macrurous 317—322 3208—3229 

Stomopoda 322—323 3230—3240 

Amphipoda 323 — 3241—3245 

Laemodipoda 323 — 3246—3247 

Isopoda 323—326 3248—3274 

Entomostraca 326—327 3275-3287 

Xiphosura 327—328 3288—3289 

Arachnidae (Spiders and Scorpions) .... 329—332 3290-3328 

Insecta (Insects) 333—397 3329—3754 

Myriapoda 398—399 3755—3757 

Annelida 399—402 3758—3762 



NEMATONEURA. 

Echinodermata 402-406 3763— .3781 

Coelelmintha 406 — 3782—3783 

Rotifera 406-407 3784—3786 

Bryozoa 407 — 3787—3811 



A C R I T A. 

Sponges, Zoophytes, Corals, Actiniae . . . 407 — 418 

Polygastrica 418 — 419 

AcalephiB 419^423 

Sterelraintha 423—425 

Arrangement of Animal Kingdom 426 — 



3812-3860 
3861—3864 
3865—3904 
3906 — 




>5^^ .'>i ^fff 




1772. — Virginian Quail. 







1771.— Hock Quail. 



IT7J.— Paltriiige., 




1768.— Pin-tailed Sand-<3 rouse. 



1769.— Throat-banded Sand-Grouse. Male and Female. 



No. 51. Vol. II. 



[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



PICTORIAL MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



17C5. 1766.-Th« Ptarmigan 
{Ltiijopui mutut). Gclinote blanche, TAttaees 
blaiic, orthc French; Pertiice, alpestre and I^gopo 
biniicu of the Italians; Schiieehuhn and Hassen- 
tiis^it;e Waldhiilui of the Geinian*; Rype of the 
Norwegians; Uiiipkaiie (male) tlic Kitipa (female) 
oflhe Ii-elanders ; Tarinaclian ofihe Ilii^lilandGael ; 
Coiiar vr Aiban cf the Welsh. In this genus the 
legs ana toes are complete!}' clothed with hair-like 
feathers to the very claws, and in winter so thick 
and deep does this rovi>ring become, as to give to 
the leg the ai>|>earancc of a "hare's foot." Small 
closely-set feathers also invest the buse of the beak, 
which increase, dnrins; the colder season, till little 
more than the point of the latter is visible. A naked 
skin rises above each eje. 

The Itarmi^an is a native of the dreary mountain 
regions of the north of Europe, the Alpine districts 
of central Europe, and the northern parts of America, 
including the islands lying to the sotilh-west of 
Baffin's Bay. It is found in the British Islands, 
being common on the Grampians, where great 
granite and slaty masses afToid it concealment. It 
is found also in tolerable abundance on the elevated 
summits of the mountains in the norih of Scotland, 
and the adjacent islands. Mountuin berries and 
heath-shoots in summer, buds and leaves in winter, 
constitute the food of the ptarmigan ; and at this 
season the binls are ollen obliged to burroiv under 
the snow, partly perhaps for shelter, but principally 
in quest of food. Alter the breeding-seasim the 
various young coveys and their parents associate in 
lari;e flocks, consisting of forty or fifly individuals, 
which separate info pairs early in the spring. The 
nest, if it desei ve the name, consists of a few twij^s 
and stalks of ?rass, loosely arranged in a slight 
depression on the giound; the eegs, fourteen or 
fifteen in number, are ofa pale reddish white, spotted 
with dark brown. The young run about as soon as 
they leave the shell, and are quite on the alert, 
concealinsr themselves with great skill on the ap- 
pearance of danger. The alarm-call of the ptarmi- 
gan is a strange croaking cry, and so well do the 
mingled colours of these birds blend with the frag- 
ments of out-cropping rock, weather-stained and 
covered by many tinted lichens and mosses, that 
a person may pass very near a covey without per- 
ceiving them, unless one utters his call, or they rise 
8udde:ily upon the wing. 

One of the most remarkable facts connected with 
the history of this species is its change from a rich 
and spotted livery, its summer dress, to one of pure 
white. In spring, for example, the plumage is 
varied with black and deep reddish yellow, the quill- 
feathers being white with black shafts. Towards 
autumn the yellow gives place to greyish white, 
and the black spots become irregularly broken, till 
at last they disappear, the plumage whitening to 
the purity of snow. At the same time it acquires 
gre.iter fulness ; and the legs and feet are so densely 
clad as to resemble those of a hare. As spring 
returns, the ptarmigan beginstolose the pure white 
of his plumage, and regain his summer dress. 

Of the number of ptarmigans imported during 
the latter part of the winter and early in the spring 
from Norway, Sweden, &c., to the London market, 
few persons have any idea. "On one occasion," 
says Mr. Yarrell, " late in the spring of 183t), one 
party shipped six thousand ptarmigans for London, 
two thousand for Hull, and two thousand for Liver- 
pool ; and at the end of February or very early in 
March of the year 1840, one salesman in Leadenhall 
Market received tifleen thousand ptarmigan that 
had been consigned to him, and during the same 
week another salesman received seven hundred 
capercaillies, and tive hundred and sixty black 
grouse." From Drannen, in Norway, in 18,39, two 
thousand dozen of ptarmigans were exported in one 
ship for Ijonion. Si.xty thousand have been killed 
in a single parish during the course of the winter. 
The total of these birds destroyed throughout Norway 
and Sweden every season, we do not know, but it 
must be enormous. 

With respect to the red grouse (Lagopus Scoticus) 
it is exclusively peculiar to the British Islands, being 
found in no part of the Continent. This beautiful 
and valued bird is common on the high moorland 
districts of the northern counties of England, Scot- 
land, Wale.*, and Ireland, where the heath affords it 
shelter and concealment. During the autumn and 
winter it associates in flocks or packs, which are often 
wild and shy, and not easily approached. Early in 
the spring the sexes pair ; the female lays her eggs 
in March, making a rude nest of sprigs of heath and 
grass upon the trround, imder the shelter ofa tuft of 
heath or of the bilberry plant (Vaccinium Myrtillus). 
The young are strong on the wing by August. The 
male takes no part in the labour of incubation, but 



joins the female and the young brood as soon as 
hatched, and is as attentive to the later as the 
female parent. The red giouse feeds upon the 
tender snoots of heatli, on bilbenies, whortleberries, 
and the berries of other species of Vaccinium, and 
also uuon oats, fur which it will visit the stubble 
lands bordeiing the moors. Its flighty is rapid and 
po'.verful. 

The plumage of the red grouse is very rich, the 
general tint being deep chestnut, diversified with 
zigzag bars and dots of black ; the legs and toes are 
thickly clad with hair-like feathers, and a bright 
scarlet fringed skin, largest in the male, surmounts 
the eye. 

17C7, 1768. — Thk Pin-tailkd Sand-Gbousk 

(Pteiocle^ selarius). The sand-grouse are natives of 
the sandy ]ilains and rocky deserts of Africa, Asia, 
and the southern districts of Europe. They are 
distinguished by long pointed wings, and a conical 
form of tail, the two middle tail-feathers heine in 
some species much elongated. Birds of powerful 
and rapid flight, they love to wander from place to 
place, sweeping over the hot and arid solitudes in 
which they find a congenial abode. Some are 
giegarious, associating in vast flocks, others live in 
pairs ; the prevailing tints of their plumage are 
grey, sandy, yellow chestnut, olive, and black. 

The pin-tailed sand-grouse is found in the south 
of .Spain, the north of Al'iica, and the deserts of i 
Arabia and Syria. The stony districts of the country i 
beyond .Jordan s.varm with these birds, there called 
Katla. Near Boszra, says Burckhardt, 'the quantity 
of Kattas is beyond description ; the whole plain i 
seemed sometimes to rise ; and far off'in the air they ; 
were seen like large moving clouds." In the moun- j 
tains of Edom their numbers are equally great, and 
so dense are the flocks that the Arab boys often kill ; 
two or three at a time by merely throwing a slick ' 
aninng them. According to Russell they are com- 
mon at all seasons, but most abound in May and 
June, when, even in northern Syria, a quantity sufii- [ 
cient to load an a.ss may sometimes be taken at one 
shutting of the clasp-net. Their flesh is dry, black, 
and hard, but is nevertheless relished by the Turks, ' 
though it is never seen at the tables of the Franks. 
This bird lays two or three eggs, of a greenish black 
colour, and about the size of those ofa pigeon. They 
are placed on the dry ground without any nest. The 
Arabs collect them in large quantities-, and eat them 
fried in butter. Burckhardt suggests that this bird 
is the quail (Selay) of the ancient Is.-aelites, and 
Hassclqiiist was of the same opinion. The pin- 
tailed grouse is distinguished by a broad band of 
deep chestnut, edged with a line of black across the 
chest ; the upper surface is elegantly varied by 
alternate bars of yellow, black, and silvery grey ; the 
two central tail-feathers are elongated into slender 
points. Size, that of a partridge. 

17G9. — The Throat-banded Sand-Grouse 

{Plerocles gutliiralis, Smith). Male and Female. 
This species was discovered by Dr. A. Smith, in 
South Africa, about eighty miles to the eastward of 
Latakoo. In common with the other South African 
species of this genus, it repairs in large flocks, at 
regular periods, to localities where water is, and 
when approaching or retiring from such spots, which 
it does with singular rapidity and suddenness, it utters 
cries resembling the syllables twet iceet, ttvet-iveet. 
Though these birds crowd in flocks to the water, they 
are not truly gregarious, but disperse themselves in 
pairs over the feeding-grounds, whence they take 
flight at ten in the morning and three in the after- 
noon to the water ; the margins of the pools which 
they frequent being at those times crowded by hun- 
dreds struggling to obtain their refreshment. Dr. 
Smith found grass seeds, ants, and gravel in the 
stomachs of most of the individuals he procured. 
The female deposits her eggs, two or three in num- 
ber, on the bare ground ; they are of a dirty white 
or cream colour, with irregular streaks and blotches 
of pale rust colour and grey. Almost as soon as 
the young escape from the shell they take to a wan- 
dering life, and remove from place to place with the 
parent birds in search of food. 

The present species is about twelve inches in 
length ; the male has a dark brown crescent mark 
across the throat, which is wanting in the female. 
For minute details see Dr. Smith's 'Illustrations of 
the Zoology of South Africa.' He enumerates four 
other species as peculiar to South Africa, and many 
more natives of Northern Africa, Senegal, &c. 

1770.— The Common Partridge 

(Perdix cineren). Perdris, Perdris griso, ou des 
Champs, of the French ; Perdice, Pernisette, Perni- 
gona, and Staraa of the Italians ; Rebhun of the 



Germans ; Coriar of the ancient British ; Pcrtrisen 
of the modern Welsh. 

The Common Partridge is too well known to 
require minute description : it appears to be confined 
within the boundries of Europe, everywhere frequent- 
ing cultivated districts and rich corn-lands ; hence its 
increase is encouraged by the converoion of heath, 
moorland, and wood into fields of waving grain. 
The pairing time of these birds is about the begin- 
ning of February, at which season the males engage 
in desperate conflicts, and as they are more 
numerous than the females, the successful combatant 
in one battle has often to renew the strife with other 
rivals. The female produces her eggs about the 
latter part of May or beginning of June, depositing 
them in a rough nest or shallow depression of the 
ground, in a corn-field or clover-field, under a tuft of 
glass in a meadow, or amongst whin bushes. They 
vary from twelve to twenty in number, and are of 
a greenish ash colour. .So close does the female sit 
and so unmoved is she by apprehension of danger, 
that she frequently falls a victim to the mower's 
scythe while brooding over her nest. The young, 
after three week's incubation, are hatched in June, 
or from the beginning to the middle of July ; and 
the male immediately joins his mate in the care of 
the young brood. From the earliest times the par- 
tridge has been celebrated for the various artifices 
employed to draw oft" the attention of men and dogs 
from the young, which at the warning call of their 
parents have dispersed, and lie cowering in the 
grass or amidst the standing corn ; nor is this all, — 
they «ill tight resolutely in defence of their brood, 
and have been known to engage in combat with the 
kite and the crow, and accomplish their object. 
The fee<ling-time of the partridge occupies two or 
three hours alter sunri.se, and again in the evening 
before sunset. The intei-val they employ in basking 
and dusting their plumage in sunny places, in 
preening their feathers, ami in taking short flights 
from one spot to another. They roost at night upon 
the ground, near the centre of a field, in a bare spot, 
and at sunset may be heard calling to each other, 
till the covey, which sits crowded together, is com- 
plete. 

The Red-legged Partridge (Perdix rubra), a spe- 
cies abundant in France and Italy, and a native also 
of the isiauds of Guernsey and Jei-sey, has within 
the last few years been introduced into some of the 
preserves of game in our island and in various parts 
has considerably multiplied ; but to the injury of the 
common partridge, which it fiercely peisccules, 
usurping its legitimate territory. Its flesh is very 
inferior to that of the latter, and the sportsman to 
his annoyance finds that the birds, instead of rising, 
run, soon spoiling the behaviour of his best-tiained 
pointers. The red-legged partridge is very beautiful, 
having the feathers of the sides ornamented with a 
series of crescent-shaped bars of black, white, and 
chestnut ; the throat is white, bordered by a deep 
black band ; the general colour of the upper surface 
is reddi.sh brown, of the under surface reddish yellow. 
Olosely allied to this species are the Greek partridge 
(Perdix saxatilis), the Barbary partridge (P. petrosa), 
and the Chukar partridge from India (P. Chukar). 
All have a rudimentary blunt spur on the legs. 

To our common partridge, not only in plumage 
and form, but in the spurless condition of the legs, 
the Quails (Cotumix) bear a close resemblance. 
The European Quail (Coturnix dactylisonans; the 
of>Tvl of Aristotle; Coturnix of the Latins; Quaglia 
of the modern Italians; Caille of the French; and 
Wachtel of the Germans) is known over the greater 
part of the old woild, and is a summer visitant, 
though not in great numbers, to our island. In 
Italy, Spain, and Portugal, the quail may be regarded 
as stationary, flocks or bevis remaining during the 
winter, but increased every spring by an accession 
of visitoi-s from the parched plains of Africa, the 
winter asylum of myriads which make Europe and 
the adjacent parts of Asia their annual summer 
residence. In India we believe the quail is not 
migratory. During their periodical flights between 
Europe and Africa, and vice versH, the shores and 
islands of the Mediterranean are replete with myriads. 
Sicily swarms with them— their autumnal arrival 
is looked forward to with great anxiety, and they are 
shot and captured by wholesale. On the coasts of 
the kingdom of Naples a hundred thousand have 
been destroyed in one day. According to Baron de 
Tott, no country abounds in quails more than the 
Crimea. During the summer these birds are dis- 
persed over the country, "but assemble at the 
approach of autumn, and cross the Black Sea to 
the southern coa,sts, whence they afterwards trans- 
port themselves into a warmer climate. The order 
of this emigration is invariable: toward the end of 
August, in a serene day, when the wind blows fiotn 
the north at sunset, and promises a fine night, they 



Quails.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



repair to the strand, take their departure at six or 
seven in the evening, and have finished a jour- 
ney of fifty leajues by break of day." Nets are 
spread on the opposite shore, and persons are 
assembled to capture the birds exhausted by their 
fliglit. The migrrations of the quail have in fact 
been noticed by the ancients, from Aristotle to 
Pliny ; and the latter asserts that, blown by adverse 
winds out of their course, whole flocks are often 
swept into tlie sea, and that sometimes they settle 
on vessels in such numbers as to cause their siiikina;. 
" Advolant .... non sine periculo navigantium cum 
appropinquavere terris, quippe velis saepe insident, 
et semper noctu, mergunlque navigia." (Plin. ' Hist. 
Nat.' lib. X.) Ilasselquist states that in Egypt 
amazing flocks of these birds arrive in the month 
of March, when the wheat ripens there, and are 
caught in thousands by means of nets. 

The flesh of the quail is very delicate. Our 
London markets are supplied .principally from 
France, and thousands are there captured by means 
of a quail-pipe which imitates their call ; but, as 
M'r. Selby observes, "by this device males only are 
taken, which may account for the few female speci- 
mens found amongst the many hundreds kept in 
confinement by the London poulterers." We may 
add that the males precede the arrival of the females 
by a few days. 

According to Pliny, the Romans entertained a 
prejudice against the flesh of these birds, in conse- 
quence of their feeding on the grains of the helle- 
bore, and their being subject to epilepsy. Other 
nations, however, do not seem to have partaken of 
this prejudice. The quail is polygamous ; the 
nest consists merely of a few dried stalks in 
some convenient receptacle on the ground, gene- 
rally in a field of wheat ; the eegs are from twelve 
to eighteen in number, of a light greenish hue, 
blotched with brown. The pugnacious habits 
of the quail are well known : " As quarrelsome as 
quails in a cage," was an ancient saying. The males 
fight with the spirit and resolution of game-cocks; 
lience the Greeks and Romans kept them for the 
purpose of fighting, and the same practice prevails 
in China and India at the present day. 

The colours of the quail are very pleasing, being 
a mixture of black, chestnut, yellow, and white ; the 
markings vary in intensity, but the males are always 
characterized by a black border round the throat, 
v.hich is wanting in the female. Length seven 
inches and a half. 

177L— The Rock-Qu.\il 
(Coturnix Aigoondah). This species, described by 
Colonel Sykes, is a native of the Dukhun. It feeds 
principally upon grass seeds, which were exclusively 
found in the stomachs of the birds Colonel Sykes 
obtained. He states that they do not frequent cul- 
tivated lands, but aie found all over the Dukhun on 
the general level of the country, amidst rocks and 
low bushes, and that they rise in coveys of from ten 
to twenty or more, from under the feet, with start- 
ling suddenness and bustle, so that the young sports- 
man is perplexed in selecting his bird. They are 
gregarious, and probably polygamous ; Colonel Sykes 
never saw them solitary or in pairs. The flesh is 
white. This species is used by the natives for quail- 
fights. General colour above rufous brown with 
narrow ferruginous bars ; under parts dirty white 
with black bars ; forehead ferruginous; a stripe over 
the eye reddiah white. Length six inches and a 
half. 

1772.— The Viroini.\n Quail 
(0;Vyr Virginiann). The genus Ortyx, character- 
ized by a peculiarly short, high, thick bill, is the 
American representative of the genus Coturnix of 
the Old World. „ , , 

According to Wilson, the Virginian or Maryland 
quail is a general inhabitant of North America, 
from the northern parts of Canada to the extremity 
of Florida; and is numerous in Kentucky and Ohio. 
It frequents the vicinity of cultivated lands where 
grain is in plentv ; and though the coveys sometimes 
take shelter in 'woods or among brushes, they are 
most usually found in the open lields or along 
fences of biiars. Where not much persecuted by 
sportsmen, they become almost half domesticated, 
and in winter approach the farm-yard, mixing with 
the poultry, and there gleaning their subsistence. 
It would appear, indeed, that with little trouble this 
species might be domesticated. The Virginian 
quail beirius to build early in May, making a thick 
nest of leaves and dried grass, under a lull of grass 
that shelters and conceals it ; it is domed, and has a 
lateral entrance. The eggs are from ten to eighteen, 
and of a p\ire white ; llie male at times assists in 
hatching them. The young run about as soon as 
liberated, and follow their parents until spring. 
These birds roost at night in the middle of a field 
on the glass, the covey forming a circle, with their 
heads outwards ; an arrangement which enables 
them both to prevent surprise, and to take wing and 
scatter asunder when alarmed. 
Vol. II. 



The usual cry of this bird is a clear whistle, but 
the call of the male in the pairing season consists 
of three distinct notes, sounding like the words " Ah, 
Bob White;' the first note a kind of aspiration, the 
two last loud and clear. In the middle of April the 
male may he seen perched on a fence-stake or some 
low branch, uttering his call for hours : should he 
hear the note of a female, he sails directly towards 
the spot whence it proceeded ; but it often happens 
that the call of a rival at a little distance sounds 
a challenge — hence obstinate combats often take 
place. 

The gun, the net, various traps and devices thin 
the numbers of the Virginian quail or partridge, its 
flesh being held in high estimation ; it is also kept 
in coops or cages, and soon becomes very fat. Its 
ordinary food consists of grain and berries, but it 
feeds on ants and various insects. .'According to 
Audubon, flocks of this species in October perform 
occasional migrations from the north-west to the 
south-east, somewhat in the manner of the wild 
turkey. 

This species has the bill black ; line over the eye, 
down the neck, and whole chin pure white, bounded 
by a descending band of black, which spreads 
broadly over the throat; eye dark hazel; crown, 
neck, and upper part of the breast red brown; sides 
of the neck spotted with white and black on a red- 
dish brown ground ; back, scapulars, and lesser co- 
verts red brown, intermixed with ash and sprinkled 
with black ; tertials edged with yellowish white ; 
wings plain dusky ; lower part of the breast and 
belly pale yellowish white, beautifully marked with 
numerous curving spots or arrow-heads of black ; 
tail ash, sprinkled with reddish brown; legs very 
pale ash. Length nine inches; extent fourteen 
(male). The female differs in having the chin and 
sides of the head yellowish brown. (Wilson.) 

1773. — The Californian Partridge 

{Ortyx Cahfornica). Lophortyx Californica, Bona- 
parte. 

This beautiful species is common in the low woods 
and plains of California, where it was discovered by 
the unfortunate La Perouse, and, according to the 
editor of his voyage, was found in flocks of two or 
three hundred; the birds were fat and well fla- 
voured. Several living specimens were procured 
by Captain Heechey, with a view of being brought 
to England, where it was hoped the species might 
be naturalized, but unfortunately the plan was de- 
feated by the death of the females on the passage. 
The males were presented to the Zoological Society, 
and one of them lived for a considerable time (1833). 
For some observations on the genus Ortyx by Mr. 
Vigors, and descriptions of several species, see 
'Zool. Proceeds.' 1830, p. 3. 

Specimens of the Californian partridge or quail 
had, however, been previously brought to England 
by Mr. A. Menzies, who accompanied Vancouver in 
his expedition round the world, and were described 
by Shaw and Latham. 

In manners these birds closely resemble the par- 
tridge or quail, but hold themselves more erect ; 
the graceful crest on the head adding much to their 
appearance. The general plumage is of a dusky 
slate colour ; the crest, which is bent forwards, is 
black, as is also the throat, encircled by a belt of 
white. The feathers at the back of the neck are 
small and triangular, of a slaty hue, with a narrow 
black margin and white tip. The leathers of the 
sides and under surface are of a dull reddish white 
margined with crescents of black. The female has 
but little crest, and the general tone of colouring is 
browner and more obscure. The figure is stout; 
length about nine inches. 

1774.— The Taigoor Qiiaii, 

(Hemipoflius Taiqoor, Sykes). The genus Hemi- 
podius (Turnix, lion. ; Tridactylus, Lacep. ; Ortygis, 
111.) has the bill moderate, slender, straight, much 
compressed, and curved at the point ; the tarsi are 
moderate ; the hind toe is wanting. The tail shoit 
and composed of weak feathers ; wings moderate. 
Geographical distribution, Europe, Asia, Africa, 
Australia. The Taigoor quail was met with by 
Colonel Sykes in the Dukhun, and closely resembles 
the female of the H. pugnax, but is a truly distinct 
species: of its habits nothing definitely is stated, 
most probably they resemble those of the H. pugnax, 
or Bustard-quail, respecting which Colonel Sykes 
savs that it lives solitary or in pairs, and is mostly 
foiind in Chillee-fields (Capsicum annuum). The 
colouring of the Taigoor quail is as follows:— plu- 
mage above chestnut, the feathers margined with 
straw yellow, and barred with black ; quills brown ; 
throat white ; breast barred black and white ; under 
parts pale ferruginous. Length nearly seven inches. 

177,^.— The Kurrichane Quail 
(Hemipndhts Lepurana, Smith). This species is a na- 
tive of South Africa, where it was discovered by Dr. 
A Smith, who states that few specimens only were 



obtained, and these not until the expedition had 
reached the country north of Latakoo. '• The gras.sy 
valleys south-east of Kurrichane were the only lo- 
calities in which they were discovered, and even 
there they appeared to be but thinly scattered, for 
more than a single individual was seldom found in 
or even near the same place. When the birds were 
disturbed, they seldom flew far before they alighted, 
upon which they continued their retreat, since none 
of those flushed a second time were ever found near 
the spots where they had been marked down." The 
food consists of seeds and small insects, with which 
a considerable quantity of fine gravel is swallowed. 
The general colour is mingled rufous and chestnut, 
variegated, spotted and barred with dark brown, 
black, and white. For long detailed descriptions, 
see Dr. A. Smith's 'Zool. of South Africa.' 

1776. — The Ferruginous and Grey Francolin- 
{Fraucoliitus Ponticerianm)i In the genus Fran- 
colinus the bill is stout, of moderate size, convex 
above ; the feet are naked and four-toed, and the 
tarsi of the male are armed with strong blunt spurs. 
The species are spread through Europe, Asia, and 
Africa. They inhabit the forests, perch on trees, 
feed on berries, seeds, the tender tops of herbs, and 
also on bulbous roots. One species (Franco!inu.s 
vulgaris) inhabits the southern parts of Europe, the 
north of Africa, and a great portion of the Asiatic 
continent, as Persia, Bengal, and the Himalaya 
Mountains. 

The Francolinus Ponticerianus is a native of 
India, and called Teetur by the Maihattas. In the 
Dukhun, according to Colonel Sykes, it is one of the 
most common birds, and is called partridge : it fre- 
quents gardens and cultivated lands. In the Ghauts 
it is not met with, unless in «ell cultivated valleys, 
and not at all on the mountains. It roosts on trees ; 
and Colonel Sykes has on more than one occasion 
shot these birds on trees during the daytime — but 
this is a rare occurrence. Length fouileen inches. 
(' Proceeds. Zool. Soc' 1832, p. 1.54.) 

1777. — The Pileated Francolin 

{Francolinus pileatus). This fine bird, which mea- 
sures thirteen inches and a half in length, was dis- 
covered by Dr. A. Smith during his late expedition 
into the interior of South Africa, and was first seen 
on the banks of the Marikwa river, which flows in 
a south-easterly direction from Kurrichane. "It 
showed," says Dr. Smith, " but little disposition to 
resort to the jungle, though when disturbed in more 
open localities, which it by choice frequents while 
feeding, it, like Francolinus Natalensis, seeks con- 
cealment in the bosom of the thickets. Early in 
the morning specimens were observed in moderate 
abundance upon the open grassy plots which oc- 
curred intersecting the wooded regions that skirted 
both sides of the stream, and there they appeared 
to find their food in plenty, which was found to 
consist of small bulbous roots, seeds, insects, &c. 
To the same localities these birds were also observed 
to resort towards evening ; but at that period they 
were less readily discovered, owing to their being 
commonly more silent at that time. During the 
middle of the day they were rarely observed, and 
from what was ascertained there were grounds for 
believing they repose while the sun is warm, and 
that while enjoying rest they are generally perched 
upon dwarf trees or shrubs, no doubt to be the 
more secure from the teeth of the numerous pre- 
datory quadrupeds which are constantly traversing 
the woods in quest of prey." (See ' Illust. of Zool. 
of South Africa.') 

Fig. 1778 represents three species of Francolin, 
from'North Africa, Abyssinia, &'c., and the Bnrbaiy 
Partridge : o, Clapperton's Francolin (Francolinus 
Clappertoni) ; b, RUppell's Francolin (F. Rupelhi) ; 
c, Erckel's Francolin (F. Erckleii) ; d, the Baibaiy 
Partridge (Perdix petrosa.) 

1779.— The Rouloul Partridge 
{Crmtonyx cristatvs). In the genus Cryptonyx 
the bill is stout, compressed, and convex above; 
orbits and lore naked ; hind toe without a claw, and 
not touching the ground ; wings short ; tarsi spur- 
less Geo<Taphical distribution, India and its islands. 
The Roulovil partridge, called by the Malays Bostum. 
is a native of Malaya, Sumatra, and Java, where it 
haunts the vast forests, avoiding the precincts of 
man's abode ; it is wild. shy, and difficult to csptuie, 
and is kept alive in confinement with great difti- 
culty. It is the Rouloul de Malacca of Sonnerat. 

Tills is a beautiful species; the male is crested; 
anterior to the crest rise a few long hair- like 
feathers : the crest is full and falls back over the 
occiput ; at its origin it is pure white, and then be- 
comes of a fire red. The forehead and upper parts 
of the neck are blackish blue, contrasting with the 
red naked skin of the lore and orbits. The upper 
part of the body is emerald green, the lower part 
rich azure blue : the wings are ruddy brOAn; the 
bill lead-colour ; the legs flesh-colour. Ihe lail- 




'^-r-^'t^jCT' ^' 



1 ,1 ' 





-f- 






-.>e 




QniL 



IT7*.— FfenitiBoiu and Gtejr Fnacella. 



1774.— TaigooiQiuU. 








irrs.— Granp or FnuooUn*. 



1777. — Pilcatetl Francolin. 




.779.— Rouloul Parttidgt«.< 






1773 Calirornian PartrWge. 




17&2. — Gaieated Oirassow 



IT80.— Hoa'iin. 





1783.— Crmted Gutn. 



17S1.— Crested Curanow. 




1788.— Oceilated I>!ipaa, 




1 787.— Head and FoDt of Talegalla. 





178S.— Watded Talegalla. 



1789.— Head and Footof leipoa. 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[CURASSOWS. 



featliera, which are »liort and hidden, are black. 
Length ten inches. The female wants the crest, 
but possesses the hair-hke appendiiges of the fore- 
head. Tlie liead and neck are deep brown ; the 
whole body uniform ems* ereen ; the winpj of a 
ruddy brown waved with dark biown. Of the pe- 
culiar habits of this species little is correctly known, 

1780.— Thk Tataupa 

(TImmim Talnupa, Sw.). Tlie Tinamous, or Ynam- 
bus,as Azara calls them, are peculiar (o tropical Ame- 
rica. Thev are distinguished bv a slout form of body, 
a depressed bill, broader than hit;h, with the nostiils 
lateral, medial, and o))en. The hind-toe is a mere 
rudiment ; the tail is extremely short, and concealed 
by the rump-feathers ; the \vin<;s are short. Mr. 
Swainson observes that the appearance of these 
birds reminds us of the bustard!!, which they pro- 
bably represent in the New World. Their flesh he 
describes, from personal experience, as infinitely 
superior, both in flavour and whiteness, to that of 
the partridge or pheasant. " We believe," he adds, 
"that these birds never perch, as some suppose, but 
that they live entirely among herhane in the more 
open tracts of the interior." Mr. Darwin, who met 
with a species of this genus near Maldonadu. in a 
district covered with green turf, but wearisome 
from its sameness, says. '• We everywhere saw preat 
numbers of part ridges (Tinamous), Tinan-.iisnifi'scens. 
These birds do not go in coveys, nor do they conceal 
themselves like the English kind. It appears a 
verj' silly bird. A man on horseback, by riding 
round and round in a circle, or rather in a spire, so 
as to approach closer each time, may knock on the 
head as many as he pleases. The more common 
method is to catch them with a running noose, or 
little lasso, made of the stem of an ostrich's feather 
fastened '\o the end of a long stick. A boy on a 
quiet old horse will frequently thus catch thirty or 
loity in a day. Ttie flesh of this bird, when cooked, 
is delicately white.'' In the Pampas the same tra- 
veller asrain met with Tinamous of two species, as 
large as hen-pheasants, which, with a parliidge-like 
bird. Eudromia eleeans, were the prey of a small 
species of fox in great numbers. 

Mr. Swainson describes the species, of which our 
pictorial specimen is a representation, as being 
of a dusky rufous colour above, the head and neck 
dusky black ; the chin white ; the throat, neck, and 
breast cinereous; the under parts whitish; the 
flanks rufous black ; the feathei-s margined with 
white; bill and irides red. Length eight and a 
quarter inches. It is a native of Dahia, and very 
rare, or common only in remote and select districts. 
It is the smallest of its tribe. 

Family CHACID.E (CURASSOWS). 

The Cura-ssows (including the Guans and Hoatzins) 
arc all natives of South America, and many approach 
the turkey in magnitude. The hind-toe, instead of 
being articulated high on the tareus. as in Rasorial 
birds generally, is on a level with the rest, 
and adapts the feet for arboreal habits; legs 
spurless. The tail is ample, and composed of 
stiff feathers. In several species, as in the galeated 
curassow, the guan, the rasor billed curassow, and 
others, the windpipe makes one, two, or even three 
deep folds between the skin and muscles of the breast 
before passing into the cavity of the chest. Berries 
and various sorts of grain constitute the food of 
these birds, and they are remarkable for lameness, 
becoming easily domesticated. Their flesh in deli- 
cacy and whiteness surpasses that of the fowl or 
pheasant. 

In many parts of South America, says Mr. Ben- 
nett, these birds" have long been reclaimed, and it 
is really surprising, considering the extreme fami- 
liarity of their manners, and the facility with which 
they appear to pass from a state of nature to the 
tameness of domestic fowls, that they have not yet 
been introduced into the poultry-yards of Europe. 
That with proper treatment they would speedily 
become habituated to the climate, we have no reason 
to doubt : on the contrary, numerous examples have 
shown that they thrive well even in its northern 
parts, and M. Temminck informs us that they have 
been, once at least, thoroughly acclimated in Hol- 
land, where they were as prolific in their domesti- 
cated state as any of our common poulliy. The 
establishment, however, in which this had been 
effected was broken up by the civil commotions 
which followed in the train of the French revolution, 
and the results of much labour lost by its complete 
dispersion." 

1781. — Thk Crksted Cukassow 
(Cru.T nkclor). In the genus Crax the bill is very 
deep and arched above ; surroimded at the base with 
a membrane. Lore naked; head crested; tail- 
feathers fourteen. 

The crested curassow is a native of the forests of 
Mexico, Guiana, and Brazil ; in Guiana particularly 
it is so abundant, that Sonnini regards it as an un- 



failing source of supply to the traveller who has to 
trust to his gun. These birds congregate together 
in large troops, and are so unsuspicious that they 
will remain ouielly perched on the branches of 
trees whilst the gun makes havoc amongst their 
numbers. In districts, however, which are well 
frequented, they are more shy and mistrustful, ever 

I keeping on the alert to avoid the pursuit of the 

I sportsman. They build laige nests on the trees, 
constructing them of sticks and long herbage, and 
lining them with grasses and leaves. The eggs are 
from five to eight in number, and resemble those 
of a fowl, but have a thicker shell and are of larger 

! size. This species has bred in Holland, and is com- 
mon in a domestic state in the Dutch settlements of 

' Berbice, Rssequibo, Demerara, and elsewhere ; and 
requires but little care. In aviaries, according to 
our observations, it suffers, as do the rest of the 
group, from wet or damp, which occasions mortifi- 
cation and consequent loss o J" the toes. Plenty of 
room, a dry soil, with trees on which to perch, and 
a sheltered situation, are essentials in all endeavours 
to naturalize this valuable bird. In size the crested 
curassow equals a motlerate turkey. With the ex- 
ception of the abdominal region, which is white, 
the whole plumage is rich black with a gloss of 
green. The cere and skin round the eyes are bright 
yellow. The crest consists of feathers about three 
inches long, curled forwards, of a velvety appear- 
ance, and capable of being raised or depressed at 
will. 

1782. — ^The Galeated Curassow 

(Ourax Pauxi). Le Hooco de Mexique, Biiffon. 

In the genus Ourax the base of the upper man- 
dible is dilated into a sort of homy elevated casque 
surmounting the top of the head. 

The galeated curassow frequents in flocks the fo- 
rests of Mexico, and perches on the trees, but, as is 
stated, makes its nest on the ground ; and the young 
are led by the female parent, in the same manner 
as a hen leads her brood. The young are at first 
fed with worms, larva-, and insects, and afterwards 
pick up grain, fruits, berries, &c. Like the preced- 
ing, this species is easily domesticated, and is one of 
those which bred in Holland in the menagerie of M. 
Ameshoff. Size, that of a small turkey. Head and 
neck covered with short velvety feathers of a deep 
black; all the rest of the plumage (with the ex- 
ception of the feathers of the abdomen, which are 
white) brilliant black with a gloss of green : tail 
tipped with white ; legs red ; bill bright red. 

1783.— The Crested Guan 

{Penelnpe cristata). In the genus Peneloae the bill 
is moderate and convex, with a naked basal skin and 
lore. Under the throat a naked skin capable of 
being inflated. Tail-feathers twelve. 

The crested guan, called Jacu (pronounced Yacoo) 
in Brazil, as it is said from its cry, inhabits Guiana, 
Brazil, &c. ; it tenants the woods, sometimes associ- 
ated in large flocks, passing the greater portion of 
their existence on the topmost branches of the trees, 
where it builds its nest. They feed upon seeds and 
fruits, which, like the pigeons, they search for on the 
ground ; and, as in the case of those birds, pair 
together with strict constancy. Their flight is heavy 
and laboured. Of their flesh, those who have par- 
taken of it speak very highly. As the conformation 
of the trachea would lead us to suspect, the voice of 
these birds is loud and harsh, and when uttered by 
numbers, in concert, resounds far through the wood- 
land wilderness. 

The crested guan has been bred in Holland. 

In size this bird equals a fowl, but is longer, mea- 
suring thirty inches, of which the tail is fourteen. 
The whole of the upper surface is dusky brownish 
black, with a gloss of olive green. The head is sur- 
mounted by a tufted crest. The throat-fold of skin 
is scarlet; the naked cheeks are purplish ; the chest 
is regularly spotted with dashes of white on a dusky 
brown ground, which latter colour prevails on the 
under sxuTace. The female has a universal tinge of 
reddish, but in other respects lesembles the male. 

1784. — The Mot.mot Guan 

(Orlalida Motmot). In the genus Ortalida the 
characters are the same as in Penelope, excepting 
that the head is completely feathered, and there are 
no naked thioat-folds of skin. This species is found 
in Guiana, and agrees with the crested guan in ge- 
neral habits, but we know le.ss respecting it than 
respecting other species of this family. Its general 
colour is reddish brown with a bronzy gloss above. 

1785. — The IIoatzin 

(Oj>istliocomvs Crislaliis). Hoatzin and Iloactzin of 
Hernandez ; Houzin, Buft'on. 

In the genus Opisthoomus the bill is short, robust, 

and convex; the feet are large and strong; the 

tail-fcalhers ten. 

! The Hoatzin, which according to Sonnini, is known 

in Guiana by the name of Sasa, was seen by Her- 



nandez sitting on trees by the sides of rivers, and is 
said to prefer the flooded savannahs to higher 
grounds, and to live in pairs or sojhII companies of 
six or eight individuals. It feeds nuich on the 
leaves of the Arum arborescens. The flesh of this 
species is not in high repute, and has a rank musky 
flavour and smell, whence probably medicinal pro- 
perties have been attrihuted to it. The natives, ac- 
cording to Hernandez, deem this bird inauspicious. 
In gait and stature it bears much resemblance to the 
peacock. 

Family MEGAPODID.^ (MEGAPODES). 
The birds of this family are peculiar to Australia 
and the Papuan Islands (New Guinea, &c.\ and 
till Mr Gould's personal researches in the former 
country brought their native habits and manners to 
light, nothing was known respecting them. We 
have made reference to the Eccaleobion, to the PJgyp- 
tian egg-ovens, and to M. R6aumur'» manure-pits 
lor hatching eggs. In these birds, strange to say, we 
behold examples of instinct-directed ovcn-framers, 
lor they do not incubate like other birds, but deposit 
their eggs in mounds of earth and vegetable matter 
which they have collected and amassed, and in 
which by the heat generated they are hatched. 
By the kindness of Mr. Gould we have been 
favoured with an inspection of these birds, their 
skeletons, young, and eggs. The skeletons, which 
have the characters of those of gallinaceous 
birds, are verv extraordinary, and are adapted 
to the eggs, which are of enormous size, those of 
the common Megapode exceeding the eggs of the 
swan. The eggs of Tallegalla are smooth and white, 
about the size of those of the pelican ; those of Lei- 
poa and Megapodius are covered with a sort of epi- 
dermis, or sandy-coloured chalky layer, which is rea- 
dily removed from the true shell beneath. With re- 
spect to the size of these eggs, the intent is evident — 
they are destined to imprison and afford nutriment to 
the chick till it has grown to a comparatively large 
size and acquired great strength ; and when it 
breaks the .strong shell, it emerges completely clad 
in perfect full-grown feathers, and works its way 
through the substance of the mound, in which the 
egg was deeply buried. The feet of these birds are 
of immense size and strength, and armed with 
strong rasorial claws ; the wings are rounded. 

1786. — The Wattled Talegalla, or Brush- 
Turkey 

(Taleffalla Lalhami, Gould). New Holland Vul- 
ture, Latham ; Cafheturus Auslralis, Swainson ; 
Meleagris Lindesargii, Jameson; Brusli-Tuikey of 
the Colonists; Weelah of the aborigines of the 
Namoi. The Wattled Talegalla is a native of va- 
rious parts of New South Wales ; in the dense brushes 
of Manning and Clarence it is plentiful ; it was 
found in the scrubby gullies and sides of the lower 
hills that branch off from the great range into the 
interior, on the Brezi range to the north of the 
Liverpool Plains, and was abundant on all the 
hills on both sides of the Namoi. In its habits it is 
gregarious, moving about in small companies, like 
many other gallinaceous biids, and is at the same 
time very shy and distrustful. When it is disturbed, 
it readily eludes pursuit by the facility with which 
it runs through the tangled brush. If hard pressed, 
or where rushed upon by their great enemy, the na- 
tive dog, the whole company spring upon the lower- 
most bough of some neighbouring tree, and, by 
a succession of leaps from branch to branch, as- 
cend to the top, and either perch there or fly off to 
another pait of the brush. They resort also to the 
branches of trees as a shelter from the sun in the 
middle of the day, a habit which Mr. Gould notices 
as greatly tending to their destruction ; for the 
sportsman is enabled to take a sure aim, and the 
birds will allow a succession of shots to be fired till 
they are all brought down. 

But the most remarkable circumstance connected 
with the economy of this biitl is its nidification, for 
it does not hatch its eggs by incubation. It collects 
together a great heap of decaying vegetables as the 
place of deposit of its eggs, thus making a hotbed, 
arising from the decomposition of the collected 
matter, by the heat of which the young are hatched. 
Mr. Gould describes this heap as the result of seve- 
ral weeks' collection by the birds previous to the 
period of laying, as varying in quantity from two to 
lour cart-loads, and as of a perl'eclly pyramidical 
form. This mound, he states, is not the work of a 
single pair of birds, but is the result of the united 
labour of many : tlie same site ajiptared to Mr. 
Gould to he resorted to for several years in succes- 
sion, from the great size and entire decomposition 
of the lower part, the birds adding a fresh supply of 
materials on each occasion previous to laying. 

"The mode," says Mr. Gould in conlinuatinn, 
"in which the materials composing these mounds 
are accumulated is equally singular, the bird never 
using its bill, hut always grasping a quantity in its 
foot, throwing it backwards to one common centre. 



Megapodes.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



and thus cleaiins; the surface of the ground for a 
considerable distance so completely, that scarcely a 
leaf or a blade of grass is left. The heap being ac- 
cumulated, and time allowed for a sufficient heat to 
be engendered, the eggs are deposited, not side by 
side, as is ordinarily the case, but planted at the 
distance of nine or twelve inches from each other, 
and buried at nearly an arm's depth, peifectly up- 
right, with the large end upwards : they are covered 
up as they are laid, and allowed to remain until 
hatched. I have been credibly informed, both by 
natives and settlers living near their haiuits, that it 
is not an unusual event to obtain nearly a bnshel of 
eggs at one time from a single heap ; and as they 
are delicious eating, they are eagerly sought after. 
Some of the natives state that the females are con- 
stantly in the neighbourhood of the heap about the 
time the young are likely to be hatched, and fre- 
quently uncover and cover them up again, appa- 
rently for the purpose of assisting those that may 
have appeared; while others have informed me 
that the eggs are merely deposited, and the young 
allowed to force their way unassisted. In all proba- 
bility, as Nature has adopted this mode of reproduc- 
tion, she has also furnished the tender birds with 
the power of sustaining themselves from the earliest 
period: and tlie great size of the egg would equally 
lead to this conclusion, since in so large a space it 
is reasonable to suppose that the bird would be 
much more developed than is usually found in eggs 
of smaller dimensions. In further confirmation of 
this point, I may add, that in searching for eggs in 
one of the mounds, I discovered the remains of a 
young bird, apparently just excluded from the shell, 
and which was clothed with feathers, not with down, 
as is usually the case.* The upriu:ht position of the 
eggs tends to strengthen the opinion that they are 
never disturbed after being deposited, as it is well 
known that the eggs of birds which are placed hori- 
zontally are frequently fumed during incubation. 

The same author relates that these birds, while 
stalking about the wood, frequently utter a loud 
clucking noise ; and, in various parts of the bush, 
he observed depressions in the earth, which the 
natives informed him were made by the birds in 
dusting themselves. The stomach is stated by Mr. 
Gould to be extremely muscular ; and he found the 
crop of one which he dissected filled with seeds, 
berries, and a few insects. 

The composure with which these birds sit to be 
shot at, as above noticed, must, as Mr. Gould ob- 
serves, lead to an early extinction of the race ; an 
event, he remarks, nmch to be regretted, since, 
independently of its being an interesting bird for 
the aviary, its flesh is extremely delicate, tender, 
and juicy. Tliere is no doubt that this species may 
be domesticated, and it would make a noble addition 
to tliose foreign denizens of the poultry -yard which 
enrich our homesteads and tables. 

In the Talegalla the beak is robust and convex ; 
the wings are moderate ; the tail ample ; the head 
and neck furnished with short hair-like feathers; the 
cheeks naked, and the front of the neck presents a 
carunculated naked skin, or sort of wattle, reminding 
us of that of the turkey. In the adult male the 
whole of the upper surface, wings, and tail are 
blackish brown ; the feathers of the under surface 
blackish brown at the base, becoming silvery grey 
at the tip ; skin of the head and neck deep pink-red, 
thinly sprinkled with short hair-like blackish brown 
feathers ; wattle bright yellow, tinged with red where 
it unites with the red of the neck ; bill black ; irides 
and feet brown. 

The female is about a fourth less than the male 
in size, but so closely the same in colour as to ren- 
der a separate description unnecessary. She also 
possesses the wattle, but not to so great an extent. 
Size about that of a turkey. (Gould, ' Birds of 
Australia.') Fig. 1787 represents the Head and Foot 
of the Talegalla. 

1788. — The Ocellated Leipoa 
{Leipoa occUata, Gould). Native Pheasant of the 
colonists ; Ngow of the aborigines of the lowlands, 
and Ngow-oo of those of the highlands of Western 
Australia. 

In this genus the beak is more feeble than in 
Talegalla, the head clothed with feathers and 
crested. Fig. 1789 represents the Head and Foot 
of Leipoa. 

This species abounds in the countiy north of 
Perth (VV. Austr.), and in the barren sandy plains 
of the interior, one hundred miles north and east of 
York. It was seen by Captain Grey at Gantheaume 
Bay, and, according to the natives, exists at King 
George's Sound. In size it is inferior to the Tale- 
galla, more slender and more elegantly formed. 
According to the accounts, since confirmed, col- 
lected by Mr. John Gilbert from G. Moore, Esq., 
advocate-general, Mr. Armstrong, the aboriginal 

* 'rtiPse points have he^-n recf ntiv fully conrirmed, and Mr.^ Gould 
haa a wrip5 of the rao^t vriliiahle and interesting^ specimens, with de- 
tails, whirh he has received from his intelligent and assiduous col- 
lector now in Auitxalia. 



interpreter, and some of the more intelligent natives 
of Western Australia, the Ocellaled Leipoa is a 
giound-biid, never taking to a tree except when 
closely hunted ; when hard pursued, it will frequently 
nin its head info a bush, and is then easily taken. 
Food generally consisting of seeds and berries. The 
note mouinful, very like that of a pigeon, but with 
a more inward tone. Eggs deposited in a mound of 
sand, the formation of which is the work of boili 
sexes. According to the natives, the biids scratch 
up the sand for many yards arounil, forming a mound 
about three feet in height, the inside of which is 
constructed of alternate layers of dried leaves, 
grasses, &c., among which twelve eggs and up- 
wards are deposited, and are covered up by the 
birds as they are laid ; or, as the natives express it, 
" the countenances of the eggs are never visible." 
Upon these eggs the bird never sits, but when she 
has laid out her lay, as the henwives say, the whole 
are covered up, when the mound of sand resembles 
an ant's nest. The eggs, which are white, and veiy 
slightly tinged with red, are hatched by the heat of 
the sun's rays, the vegetable lining retaining suf- 
ficient warmth during the night ; they are deposited 
in layer?, no two eggs being suffered to lie without 
a division. The natives, who are very fond of the 
eggs, rob the.se hillocks two or three times in a 
season ; and they judge of the number of eggs in a 
mounil by the quantity of feathers lying about. If 
the feathers be abundant, the hillock is full ; and 
then they immediately open and take the whole. 
The bird will then begin to lay again, again to be 
robbed, and will fiequently lay a third time. Upon 
questioning one of the men attached to Mr. Moore's 
expedition, he gave to Mr. Gilbeit a similar account 
of its habits and mode of incubating; adding, that 
in all the mounds they opened, they found ants 
almost as numerous as in an ant-hill, and that in 
many instances that part of the mound surrounding 
the lower portion of the eggs had become so hard 
that they were obliged to chi]) round them with a 
chisel to get the eggs out ; the insides of the mounds 
were always hot. Captain Grey ('.Journal of Two 
Expeditions,' &c., 1841) saw one largo nest com- 
posed of a heap of sand, dead grass, and boughs, as 
least nine feet in diameter and thrc; in height, and 
had observed them even considerably larger. They 
occurred in dry and sandy spots, covered most 
densely with a dwarf species of Leptospermum, 
through which the traveller cannot without the 
greatest difficulty force a passage, if he chance to 
leave the beaten path. The plumage is as follows : 
— head and ci'est blackish biown ; neck and shoulders 
dark ash-grey; fore part of neck from the throat to 
the breast with lanceolate feathers which are black 
with a white stripe down the centre ; fealhers of the 
back and wings marked with three distinct ba;uls of 
greyish white, brown and black near the tip of each, 
the marks assuming an oceliated form; primaries 
brown, willi zigzag lines near the tip; under sur- 
face pale buff; fianks barred with black ; tail 
blackish brown, broadly tipped with buff; bill 
black; legs blackish brown. (Gould, 'Birds of 
Australia.') 

1790. — The Mound-making Megapode 
{Megapodius Tumulus, Gould). Jungle-fowl of the 
colonists of Port Essington; Ooiegooiga of the 
aboiigines of the Coburg Peninsula. In the genus 
Megapodius the beak is slender, nearly straight, and 
much resembles that of a fowl ; the head is crested ; 
the toes are very large and robust, and the claws of 
great size and strength. Fig. 1791 represents the 
Head and Foot of Megapodius. 

On Mr. Gilbert's arrival at Port Essington his 
attention was attracted to numerous great mounds 
of earth which were pointed out to him by some of 
the residents as being the tumuli of the aliorigines. 
The natives, on the other hand, assured him that 
they were formed by the Jnngle-fowl for the pur- 
pose of hatching its eggs. But this last statement 
appeared so extiaordinary, and so much at variance 
with the general habits of birds, that no one in the 
settlement believed them, and the great size of the 
eggs brought in by them as the produce of this bird 
strengthened the doubt of the veracity of their 
infoimation. Mr. Gilbeit, however, knowing the 
habits of Leipoa, took with him an intelligent 
native, and proceeded about the middle of Novem- 
ber to Knocker's Bay, a part of Port Essington 
harbour comparatively but little known, and wheie 
he had been informed a number of these birds were 
to be seen. He landed beside a thicket, and had 
not advanced far from the shore when he came to a 
mound of sand and shells, with a slight mixture of 
black soil, the base resting on a sandy beach, only a 
few feet above high-water mark ; it was enveloped 
in the large yellow-blossomed Hibiscus, was of a 
conical form, twenty feet in circumference at the 
base, and about five feet high. On asking the 
native what it was, he replied ' Oregooiga Rambal ' 
(Jungle-fowl's house or nest). Mr. Gilbert scram- 
bled up the sides of it, and found a you-ig bird in a 



hole about two feet deep ; the nestling, apparently 
only a few days old, was lying on a few dry withered 
leaves. The native assured Mr. Gilbeit that it 
would be of no use to look for eggs, as there were 
no traces of the old birds having lately been there. 
Mr. Gilbert took the utmost care of the young biid, 
placed it in a moderate-sized box, into which he 
introduced a large portion of sand, and fed it on 
bruised Indian corn, which it took rather freely. It* 
disposition was wild and intractable, and it effected 
its escape on the third day. While it remained in 
captivity, it was incessantly employed in scratching 
up the sand into heaps, and Mr. Gilbert remarks 
that the rapidity with which it threw the fand from 
one end of the box to the other was ([uite surprising 
for so young and small a bird, its size not being 
larger than that of a small quail. At night it was 
so restless that Mr. Gilbert was constantly kept 
awake by the noise it made, in endeavouiing to 
e.scane. In scratching up the sand the bird only 
employed one foot, and having giasped a handful, 
as it were, threw the sand behind it with but little 
apparent exertion, and without shifting its standing 
position on the other leg. 

Mr. Gilbert continued to receive the eggs without 
any opportunity of seeing them taken from the 
ground unlil the beginning of February, when, on 
again visiting Knocker's Bay, he saw two taken 
from a depth of six feet, in one of the largest 
mounds he had met with. In this instance the 
holes ran down in an oblique direction from the 
centre towards the outer slope of the hillock, so that 
although the eggs were six feet deep from I lie sum- 
mit, they were only two or three feet from the side. 
"The birds,' says Mr. Gilbert in continuation, "are 
said to lay but a single egg in each hole, and after 
the egg is deposited the earth is immediately thrown 
down lightly until the hole is filled up ; the upper 
paitof the moimd is then smoothed and roumJed 
over. It is easily known when a Jungle-fowl has 
been recently excavating, from the distinct impres- 
sions of its feet on the top and sides of the mound, 
and the earth being so lightly thrown over, that 
with a slender stick the direction of the hole is 
readily detected, the ease or difficulty of thrusting 
the stick down indicating the length of time that 
may have elapsed since the bird's operations. Thus 
far it is easy enough ; but to reach the eggs requires 
no little excriion and perseverance. The natives 
dig them up with their hands alone, and only make 
sufficient room to admit their bodies, and to throw 
out the earth between their legs; by grubbing with 
their fingers alone they are enabled to follow the 
direction of the fiole with greater certainty, which 
will sometimes, at a depth of several feet, turn off 
abruptly at right angles, its direct course being ob- 
structed by a clump of wood or some other impedi- 
ment. Their patience is, however, often put to se- 
vere trials. In the present instance the native dug 
down six times in succession to a depth of at least 
six or seven feet without finding an egg, and at the 
last attempt came up in such a state of exhaustion 
that he refused to try again ; but my interest was 
now two much excited to relinquish the opportunity 
of verifying the native's statements, and by the offer 
of an additional rew^ard I induced him to try again ; 
this seventh trial proved successful, and my gratifi- 
cation was complete when the native, with iqual 
pride and satisfaction, held up an egg, and, after two 
or three more attempts, produced a second : thus 
proving how cautious Europeans should be of dis- 
regarding the narrations of these poor children of 
nature, because they happen to sound extraordinary 
or different from anything with which they were 
previously acquainted." 

Upon another occasion Mr. Gilbert and his native, 
after an hour's excessive labour, obtained an egg 
from the depth of about five feet. It was in a 
perpendicular position. The holes in this mound 
(which was fifteen feet high and sixty in circumfe- 
rence at the base, and like the majority of those 
that he had seen, so enveloped in thickly foliaged 
trees as to preclude the possibility of the sun's rays 
reaching any part of it) commenced at the outer 
edge of the suijimit and ran down obliquely towards 
the centre : their direction therefore, Mr. Gilbert 
observes, is not uniform. The mound was quite 
warm to the hands. 

" The Jungle-fowl is almost exclusively confined 
to the dense thickets immediately adjacent to the 
sea-beach : it appears never to go far inland, except 
along the banks of creeks. It is always met with 
in pairs or quite solitary, and feeds on the ground, 
its food consisting of roots, which its powerful claws 
enable it to scratch up with the utmost facility, and 
also of seeds, berries, and insects, particulaily the 
larger species of Colcoptera. It is at all times a 
very difficult bird to procure ; for although the 
rustling noise produced by its stiff pinions when 
flying away be frequently heard, the bird itself is 
seldom to be seen. Its flight is heavy and unsus- 
tained in the extreme ; when first disturbed it in- 
variably flies to a tree, and on alighting stretches 





•.■»^i..'.". V:. '..''- 



119}.— Maand-nuklng Mrgapode. 





1793. — Young of Megmpode. 



ITM.— SkeMan oTOrtrieh. 



ini.— Haad >ad FootoT Megapods. '""VHf^ 




ITK.— SWalaa at Aptmjx. 



179(1. -Held and Foot ofOitrich. 




1801 — Stomach of Ostrich. 





1808— stomaxh of Emeu. 



1802-— Stomach of Ostrich, laid opes. 





■"^.Ui 



j.m- 



i:98.— Ostridres. 



1SC3.— Darwin's Khr. 




1803, 18 )j.— 3tOTiv!h of N indn 




No. 52. Vol. II 



1*9".— Oalrich cirrying a Nc;jro. 

[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 




lSO-3.— rout of Rli.'a. 




10 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Ostriches. 



out iti'head and neck in a straight line with ite 
body, remaining in this i)osition as stationary and 
motionless a* the branch upon which it is jwrched : 
if however it becomes fairly alarmed, it takes a ho- 
rizontal but laborious flight for about a hundred 
yards with it* legs hanging down as if broken. I 
did not myself detect any note or cry, but from the 
native's description and imitation of it, it much re- 
sembles the clucking of the domestic fowl, endmg 
with a scream like that of the peacock. I observed 
that the bird* continued to lav fiom the latter part 
of August to March, when I left that part of the 
country; and, according to the testimony of the 
native*, there is only an interval of about four or 
five months, the driest and hottest part of the year, 
l>etween their seasons of incubation. ('Birds of 
Australia.') 

Tlie head and crest ot the mound-making Mega- 
pode are of a deep cinnamon brown. The back of 
the neck and all the under surface dark grey. Back 
and wings cinnamon brown ; tail-coverts dark chest- 
nut ; bill reddish brown. Tarsi bright orange, with 
the exception of the lower scales of the front, and 
those of the toes, which are dark reddish brown. 

1792.— Duperbky's Megapooe 

(Mega/xxiiuji Ihijterreyii). Tliis species, the Man- 
goipe of the Papuans, inhabits the forests of New 
Guinea, and was found by Lesson near the harbour 
of Dori-ry ; he observes that it is timid, rans fast 
among the bushes like a partridge, and utters a 
feeble cluck. Another species, the Manesaqu6 (M. 
Freyanetii), Lesson found common in the Island of 
Wajgiou. 

1793. — Alecthelia Urvillii of Lesson. 

This bird, which Lesson not only regarded as a dis- 
tinct species, but a-s the type of a distinct genus (on 
such unphilosophical grounds are genera now esta- 
blished), is nothing more than the young of the 
Megapodius Duperreyii : his specimen was procured 
from the Isle of Guebe under the equator. 



ORDER CURSORES. 

Illiger appliesthis title to a group of birds including 
the ostrich, rhea, cassowary, and also the bustards, 
plovers, stilt-plovers, and others ; and so, according 
to our views, forms an order of heterogeneous ma- 
terials. Cuvier, with better judgment, places the 
ostrich and its allies the emeu, cassowary, &c., in a 
distinct family group, which he calls " les Brevi- 
pennes," and which accords with the family " Struthi- 
onidae " of M. Vigors, excepting that the latter in- 
cludes in it the bustards. The order " Strufliiones" 
of the Prince of Canino corresponds with the " Bre- 
vipennes" of Cuvier, the same order of Mr. G. R. 
Gray agrees with the family " Struthionidae " of 
Vigors. 

That the ostriches present us with a distinct type 
of form and anatomy from that exemplified either 
by the rasorial or grallatorial birds is palpable, and 
hence we place them under the title of an order 
]ier se, using the term Cursores, but excluding both 
the bustards and the plovers, &c. We are ac- 
customed to look upon birds as denizens of the air, 
as endowed with the powers of flight ; but in the 
t)ird8 of this order we see a marked exception to the 
general rule. They are strictly and exclusively 
terrestrial. They have wings it is true, but these 
organs are at their minimum of development, 
while, on the contrary, the limbs are massive, 
the bones large and stout, and the muscles 
acting upon them exceedingly voluminous. In 
fact the whole locomotive energy is thrown into 
the lower extremities, while the wings, li'tle more 
than rudimentary, are utterly inadequate to raise the 
body from the ground. This disproportion may be 
seen in the Skeleton of the Ostrich, Fig. 1794, and 
still more so in that of the Apteryx, Fig. 17S)0, and 
with it we observe that the sternum or brea.st-bone 
is both diminished and otherwise modified. Our 
plan, however, forbids us to enter much into anato- 
mical details; we shall therefore proceed at once to 
our first family. 

Family 8TRUTHI0NID>B (OSTRICH, 
RHEA, &c.). 

The birds of this family, remarkable for the power 
of the lower extremities, their stature, and the loose 
texture of their plumage, are divided between Africa, 
South America, Australia, and the islands of the 
Indian Archipelago. Their appearance is striking; 
but their intelligence is not of a high order, rather, 
indeed, the contrary, though they are watchful and 
wary. Their food consists of vegetable matters, to 
which, in some species, insects, larvae, worms, and 
other animal substances are added. 

1796, 1707, 1798.-THE Ostrich 
(Struthio-Cameiuii, Linnipus). Srpoi/Soica'/iiiXot of the 
Greeks; Struthiocamelus of Pliny; Autruche of 



the French ; Struzzo and Stnizzolo of the Italians ; 
Strauss of the Germans. 

The genus Struthio is characterised by the beak 
being depressed, straight, rounded and unguiculate 
at the tip, with the nostrils longitudinal, prolonged 
half way down the bill, and open, the legs robust, 
with only two toes stout and strong, and connected 
at their base by a thick membrane ; of these the 
innermost is much larger than the outer toe, and is 
furnished with a hoof-like claw, outer toe clawless ; 
wings furnished with beautiful waving plumes, and 
two plumeless shafts not unlike a porcupine's quill ; 
head and upper half of the neck scantily covered 
with thin down; eyes large >ind well guarded with 
eyelashes; tongue extremely small, short, and 
rounded. Fig. 1799 represents the Head and Foot 
of the Ostrich ; Fig. 1800, the trout view of the 
head, with the beak open to show the tongue. 

The resemblance of the ostrich in many structural 
peculiarities to the ruminating quadrupeds was not 
overlooked by the ancients, which led them to assign 
to it the name of camel-bird, in allusion to certain 
points of analogy between it and the camel : indeed 
Aristotle asserts the ostrich to be partly bird and 
partly quadruped, and Pliny observes that it may 
be almost considered as belonging to the class of 
beasts. The voluminous thighs divested of feathere 
are more like those of a ([uadruped than a bird ; 
added to which the bifid hoof-armed foot, well 
padded beneath, bears a marked resemblance to 
that of the camel. In this animal there is a large 
callous pad on the chest, upon which, when reposing, 
it throws a great portion of the weight of the body. 
In the ostrich the sternum, which has no keel, but 
is simply convex andshield-like, is also covered with 
a callous pad, or elastic cushion, having a hard 
rough surface unclothed with feathers, and on which 
the birds rest while reposing. The eyes, with their 
long lashes and overhanging brow, are also camel- 
like. The vast size and sacculated form of the pro- 
ventriculoiis (or cavity before the muscular gizzard), 
with its extraordinary apparatus of glands for pour- 
ing out a solvent fluid capable of reducing the 
coarsest vegetable aliment, is not to be overlooked. 
(See Fig. 1801, the Stomach of the Ostrich; Fig. 
1802, the same laid open.) Nor ought we to pass 
unnoticed the comparatively developed condition 
of the diaphragm, which muscular expansion in the 
Apteryx is complete. 

Like the camel, this celebrated bird is destined to 
inhabit the wide-spread desert, beneath a burning 
sun. It is found in the sandy wilds of Arabia, and 
of Africa from the north to the south; everywhere 
avoiding the presence of man, who time immemo- 
rial has been its unrelenting pei'secutor. 

In South Aliica flocks of ostriches are often seen 
on the Great Karroo, in company with troops of 
quaggas, all amicably feeding together, and when 
alarmed scouring the desert with extraordinary ra- 
pidity. The swiftness of the ostrich is indeed very 
great; elevating itself and vibrating its expanded 
plumes, it leaves " horse and rider " far behind. 
In South Africa several horsemen, taking different 
sides of a plain, often manage to tire the bird down : 
but when driven to extremities it frequently turns 
infuriated on its pursuers, and will inflict dreadful 
wounds with its claw. Dr. Shaw gives an account 
of a person who was ripped open by the blow of an 
enraged ostrich, which was kept tame, and which, 
though gentle to persons with whom it was familiar, 
was fierce and violent towards strangers. (' Travels 
in Arabia.') In Arabia and North Afiica the chace 
of the ostrich is accounted one of the most severe 
of exercises both for the Arab and his courser, re- 
quiring not only speed, but skill ; and did the bird, 
instead of wheeling round in circles of greater or 
less extent, dart forward in a direct line, the hunter 
would find his ett'orts fruitless : as it is, he is gene- 
rally enabled, after some exertion, to dash across the 
path of the bird, and throw his djerid or fire his 
gun. From the swiftness of the ostrich, and its 
(lower of endurance at full speed for hours, we may 
easily conceive that its strength must be very great. 
Adans,on saw two tame ostriches at the factory of 
Podor, on the south bank of the Niger. "They 
were both so tame,' he says, "that two little blacks 
mounted together on the back of the largest, and 
no sooner did he feel their weight than he began to 
run as fast as ever he could, till he carried them 
several times round the village, and it was impos- 
sible to stop him otherwise than by obstructing the 
passage. To try their strength, I made a full- 
grown negro mount the smallest, and two others the 
largest. This burden did not seem to me at all 
disproportioned to their strength. At firet they went 
at a moderate gallop ; when they were heated a 
little, they expanded their wings as if to catch the 
wind, and then scoured along with such fleetness 
that they seemed not to touch the ground : they 
would have distanced the fleetest racehoraes that 
were ever bred in England." 

The ostrich is polygamous. " The male ostrich 
in South Africa, at the time of breeding," savs a 



personal observer, " usually associates to himself 
Irom two to six females. The hens lay all their 
eggs together in one nest, this being merely a shal- 
low cavity scraped in the ground of such dimen- 
sions as to be conveniently covered by one of these 
gigantic birds during incubation. The hens relieve . 
each other during the day, and tlie male takes his 
turn at night, when his superior strength is required 
to protect the eggs or the new-fledged young from 
jackals, tiger-cats, and other enemies. Some of 
these animals are not unfrequently found lying dead 
near the nest, killed by a stroke from the foot of 
this powerful bird. As many as sixty eggs are some- 
times Ibund in and around an ostrich nest ; but a 
smaller number is more common. Each female 
lays from twelve to sixteen eggs. They continue to 
lay during incubation, and even alter the young 
brood are hatched; the supernumerary eggs are not 
placed in the nest, but around it, being designed (it 
IS reported) to assist in the nourishment of the 
young birds, which.though as large as a pullet when 
first hatched, are probably unable at first to digest 
the hard and acrid food on which the old ones sub- 
sist. The period of incubation is from thirty-six to 
forty days. In the middle of the day the nest is 
often left by all the birds, the heat ot the sun being 
then sufficient to keep the eggs at the proper tem- 
perature." 

With respect to the passage in Job xxxix. 1~>, it 
may be observed, that within the torrid zone the 
eggs are merely laid in the warm sand, the incuba- 
tion of the female being required only at night ; so 
far, however, is she from neglecting her oit'spring, 
that she watches over them with as much solicitude 
as any other bird, hovering around the spot where 
they are deposited, and if surprised, making a short 
circuit and returning to the object of her care. 

The flesh of the ostrich when young is very palat- 
able, and the eggs are excellent. If, however, the 
bird perceives that the latter have been disturbed 
by the hand or that the nest has been visited, she 
breaks them all and abandons the spot ; hence the 
natives abstract these delicacies by means of a long 
stick, with the utmost caution, and endeavour to 
prevent the prints of their footsteps from being vi- 
sible ; if this be well managed, the hen will continue 
to lay for some time. 

The food of the ostrich consists of the tops of 
shrubby plants, seeds, and grain ; strange to say, 
however, it will swallow with indiscriminating vora- 
city stones, sticks, pieces of metal, cord, leather, and 
other substances, which often occasion its destruc- 
tion. A fine specimen in the gardens of the Zool. 
Soc. ultimately died in consequence of swallowing 
part of a paiasol. 

The voice of the ostrich is, under ordinary cir- 
cumstances, a hoarse sonorous sort of chuckle, but it 
is said to utter, especially at night, a. roaring so like 
that of the lion, as to deceive the Hottentots. 

The young ostrich is covered with coarse mottled 
and striped plummage of a blackish brown and yel- 
lowish white : the feathers of the back having the 
shafts dilated into a thin horny strip. 

The height of the adult male is from seven to 
eight feet or more, standing upright. The beautiful 
plumes which are so valued in commerce are pro- 
cured from the wings and tail. 

Great as is in modern days the slaughter of os- 
triches, in the times of the Roman emperors it must 
have been far more considerable. We read of the 
brains of six hundred having been on one occasion 
served up in a single dish : and Vopistus is said to 
have devoured an entire ostrich (a chicken doubt- 
less) at one sitting. 

By the Mosaic law the ostrich was forbidden as 
food, and the Arabs still regard it as unclean. 

1803. — Darwin's Rhea 

{Rhea Darwinii). In the genus Rhea the bill 
much resembles that of the ostrich, but is smaller, 
and the head and neck are completely feathered ; 
the wings are furnished with plumes and terminated 
by a hooked spur. The feet are three-toed, the 
middle toe being much the largest, and are armed 
with stout claws. This genus is peculiar to South 
America. * Fig. 1804 represents the Foot of the 
Rhea. 

Two species of Rhea are now known, of which 
one, the Rhea Darwinii, has been but recently in- 
troduced to science. The other, long known, is the 
Nanilu or Nhandu-Guafu of the Brazilians ; the Tuiju 
of Laci'pede : Struthio Rhea of Linnaeus (Rhea 
Americana, Temminck). By travellers it is often 
called "ostrich." The v.ings of this species are 
more developed than in the true ostrich, and are 
adorned with long slender plumes — those answering 
to the quill-feathers are white. The plumes of this 
bird are imported into England as an article of 
commerce, and are often seen fixed in a handle, so 
as to form light and delicate dusting-brushes. In 
its natural attitude the Nandu stands about five feet 
high : its general colour is greyish brown inter- 
mingled with black passing into a lighter tint on 



Ostriches.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



11 



the under parts ; the base of the neck is encircled 
by black, which spreads on the chest into a trans- 
verse semilunar mark. Though common in its native 
country, it is only within tlie last lew years that 
specimens existed either in our museums or me- 
nageries, and, indeed, it is not long since that 
naturalists leckoned it among doubtful species. 
Azara states that it abounds upon the borders of tiie 
river La Plata, and is generally seen in the open 
parts in paire, though sometimes in flocks of thirty. 
It is chased by horsemen, who capture or kill it with 
bolas, or thongs of leather with stones attached to 
the ends, which are very eff'ective weapons. To 
our knowledge of the habits of this bird Mr. Darwin 
has recently made important additions. He describes 
it as aboundinir on the plains of La Plata, and as 
occurring occasionally in Paraguay. To the south 
its limit appears to be from forty-two to forty-throe 
degrees. " 1 1 lias not," he says, " crossed the Cor- 
dilleras, but I have seen it within the first range of 
mountains on the Uspallata plain, elevated between 
six and seven thousand feet." Its food consists of 
roots, grass, &c., but at Bahia Blanca Mr. Darniii 
repeatedly saw " three or four come down at low- 
water mark to the extensive mud-banks, which are 
then dry, for the sake, as theGauchos say, of catch- 
ing small fish." It is shy, wary, and fleet, but 
easily falls a prey to the Gauchos, who appear at 
different points around it, and so confuse it that it 
docs not know which way to take, and is soon struck 
by their bolas. It prefers to run against the wind. 
It is a singular fact that the nandu takes to the 
water and swims well. Mr. King informed Mr. 
Darwin that in Patagonia, at the bay of San Bias, 
and at Port Valdos, he saw those birds swimming 
several times from island to island; little of their 
bodies appeared above the surface, and their progress 
was slow ; and on two occasions Mr. Darwin saw 
them swimming across the Santa Cruz river, four 
hundred yards wide, with a rapid current. The 
note uttered by the male bird is a deep-toned hissing. 
It appears that the male alone incubates the eggs, 
and that several females lay in one shallow excava- 
tion, the total number of eggs varying from twenty 
to fifty. But besides the eggs deposited together in 
the nest, others, called by the Gauchos " huachos," 
are found scattered in great nurabere over the plain, 
where they lie and become putrid. This circum- 
stance, which appears strange, may arise, as Mr. 
Darwin suggests, "from the difficulty in several 
females associating together, and in finding a male 
ready to take the office of incubation.'' It is evident 
there must at first be some degree of association 
between at least two females, otherwise the eggs of 
each would be deposited at distances far too great 
to allow of the male collecting them into one nest. 
Previous then to the association of two or more 
females, the eggs they lay are dropped over the 
plain ; but when the partnership takes place, they 
make a common nest. 

The Rhea Darwinii (Fig. 1803), orAvestruz Petise, 
as the Gauchos call it, and which was evidently 
known to Dobrizhoft'er (Account [of the Abipones, 
1749), is considerably smaller than the preceding 
species, inhabits Southern Patagonia, and about Rio 
Negro advances upon the border-line of the nandu; 
it is, however, rare there. At Santa Cruz Mr. 
Darwin saw several : " They are,'" he says, " exceed- 
ingly wary. I think they could see a person ap- 
proaching when he was so far off as not to distinguish 
an ostrich. In ascending the river few were seen, 
but in our quiet and rapid descent many in pairs or 
by fo'.us or fives were observed. It was remarked 
by some of the officers, and I think with truth, that 
this bird did not expand its wings when first starting 
at full speed, after the manner of the northern kind." 
It takes to the water like the nandu, and is said to 
prefer the plains near the sea, taking the place in 
Southern Patagonia of the nandu of northern 
Patagonia and the plains of La Plata. An imper- 
fect specimen, shot at Port Desire, Patagonia,! at. 48° 
(the only one, wc believe, in Europe), brought home 
by Mr. Darwin, is preserved in the museum of the 
Zool. Soc. The French naturalist M. d'Oibigny, 
when at Rio .Janeiro, made great exertion to procure 
specimens of this bird, but did not succeed. A half- 
bred Indian informed Mr. Darwin that more than 
one female lays her eggs in a single nest, but the 
total number of eggs seldom amounts to more than 
fifteen. Mr. Darwin picked up eggs of the Avestruz 
Petise on the plains of Patagonia, and observes that 
they are little less than those of the common species, 
but of somewhat different form, and with a imge of 

Sale blue. For minuter details we refer to Mr. 
larwin's '.Journal,' p. 105-110. 
Fig. 1805 represents the Stomach of the Nandu; 
Fig. 180C, the same laid open to show the gastric 
glands. 

1807.— Emeu, Foot op 

{Dromnim Nnvm IlollandicB). Dromaius Australis, 
Swainaon ; Emu, New Holland Cassowary ; Parem- 
bang of the natives. 
Vol.. II. 



In the genus Dromaius the bill is straight, with 
the edges depressed, slightly carinated above; head 
feathered ; throat nearly naked ; feet three-toed, 
very robust. 

The emeu is a native of New Holland, and also 
the west coast near Swan River; Captain Flinders 
found these birds in abundance at Port Philip and 
King George's Sound ; and Flinders and Peron saw 
them in numbers on Kangaroo Island. 

This species nearly equals the ostrich in bulk, but 
is lower on the legs, shorter in the neck, and more 
thickset in the body. In its native regions it is said 
to stand six or seven feet, when its head is fairly 
raised, and we have seen fine males in England of 
nearly the same magnitude. The wings are simple 
rudiments, destitute of plumes, and hidden beneath 
the feathers of the body ; these have loose barbs ; 
each feather consists of two plumes, the accessory 
plume, which is usually very short, being greatly 
elongated. As the feathers lie loosely hanging 
on the bird, they resemble hair ; the cheeks and 
throat are nearly naked; the general colour is dull 
brown, but the skin of the cheeks and throat is 
purple. 

The sound which the emeu utters is very singular ; 
it is a hollow inward drumming, eftected by a pecu- 
liar structure of the windpipe ; — to the lower portion 
of this is added a membraneous sac, communicating 
with the windpipe by means of a fissure, and con- 
sequently capable of being distended with air ; and 
the compression of this air, so as to force a portion 
of it through the orifice into the windpipe, at inter- 
vals, doubtless occasions the sound. 

The emeu breeds freely in captivity in our climate : 
the female lays from seven to eleven esgs, which 
are of a beautiful deep green, very hard-shelled, and 
nearly as large as those of the ostrich. The office 
of incubation is performed by the male, who sits 
with great assiduity. The young, when hatched, are 
clothed with a thick downy plumage, of greyish 
white colour, with two stripes of black down the 
back, two down each side, and two broken stripes 
down the fore part of the neck and breast. 

In its native country the range of the emeu, owing 
to the advance of colonization, is more limited than 
formerly ; it, however, abounds still in the plains 
beyond the limits of the colony of New Holland, 
and on Kangaroo and King's Islands. 

Timid and peaceful, the emeu trusts alone to its 
speed for safety, excepting indeed when hard 
pressed ; it then strikes violently with its legs : it is 
chased by dogs, and the course is said to afford, to 
those who delight in such recreation, excellent sport. 
We learn from Mr. Cunningham, that few dogs, 
except such as are specially trained, can be brought 
to attack it, both on account of some peculiar odour 
in the flesh which they dislike, and because when 
driven to extremity it defends itself with great 
vigour, striking out with its feet, and inflicting ter- 
rible wounds ; the settlers, he observes, assert that 
" it will break the small bone of a man's leg by this 
sort of kick." To avoid being struck, the dogs, if 
properly trained, will run up abreast, and make a 
sudden spring at the neck, and if successful, they 
then soon dispatch the game. The eggs of the emeu 
are highly esteemed for food, and the flesh of the 
young is extremely delicate : that of the full-grown 
birds is coarse ; it is, however, eaten both by the 
natives and the colonists, who often prefer it to kan- 
garoo. "The rump part," says Mr. G. Bennett 
(' Wanderings,' &c.), "is considered as delicate as 
fowl ; the legs are coarse, like beef, but still 
tender. The fibula bone of the leg is used as 
an ornament by the natives." It is, however, prin- 
cipally for the oil obtained fi'om it that the emeu is 
valued. Of this fluid the skin of a full-grown bird 
produces six or seven quarts ; it is clear, and of a 
bright yellow or amber colour. This oil is extracted 
by boiling the skin, stripped of the feathers, and 
cut into small pieces. It is used for burning in 
lamps, and various purposes. The natives prefer 
their emeu meat with the skin on, regarding the oil 
as a luscious treat. 

Though these birds are shy and wary, they take 
but little pains in the concealment of their nest, 
which is very simple, consisting of a few sticks, 
leaves, and grasses, scraped together upon a clear 
space amidst brushwood. The natives seek lor the 
eggs, which during the season of breeding form a 
great portion of their subsistence. 

The food of this bird consists of leaves, fruits, and 
herl)age, for the plucking of which its straight strong 
beak, which is rounded at the point, is well adapted. 
Though not an aquatic bird, the emeu swims well ; 
it has been observed by Captain Sturt crossing the 
Murrumbidgee River; and though we are not aware 
that either the ostrich or the cassowary ever enters 
the water and swims (a circumstance, especially as 
far as the latter is concerned, not improbable), we 
know that this is the case with the Rhea. 

That the emeu might become naturalized in 
Europe, forming an ornament to our paiks and 
pleasure-grounds, no one who has seen the speci- 



mens in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of 
London can hesitate to admit. 

There is, besides the common emeu, a distinct 
species, of which one specimen exists in the Lin- 
n;can Collection, the other in the Museum at Paris. 
It is the Dromaius parvulus of Gould. It is very 
rare, if indeed it be not extirpated. Fig. i808 repre- 
sents the Stomach of the Emeu. 

1809, 1810.— The Cassowary 

(Cusuarius Casoar, Brisson). Emeu of the early 
Portuguese voyagers ; Casoaris of Bontius. This 
fine bird, the sole example of the genus Casuarius, 
is a native of Java, Sumatra, Banda, and the 
Moluccas. The beak, instead of being broad and 
depressed, as in the ostrich, is compressed laterally, 
and ridged above ; the head and upper part of the 
neck are naked, the former being surmounted with 
a horny crest or helmet, the latter being of the most 
intense blue, purple, and scarlet blended together ; 
there are two v.attles at the lower part of the neck. 
The body is covered with long, narrow, blackish, 
feathers, rather stiff and glossy, and having a coarse, 
hair-like appearance. 'The pinions are very small, 
and concealed beneath the plumage, with the ex- 
ception of fine long, stiff, and pointed shafts, of a 
black colour ; their length is unequal ; the longest 
exceeds twelve inches. 

The thighs are clothed with feathers, and the toes 
are three in number, of which the innermost, which 
is short, is armed with an enormous conical claw. 
Height of bird when erect, about five feet. In many 
important points of internal structure the cassowary 
differs from the ostrich; in fact, it is not a desert 
bird, though fleet and powerful : its digestive organs 
are not adapted for hard coarse diet, but for fruits 
and tender succulent herbage. It is not common 
even in its native islands, where, however, it is 
sometimes kept tame. It defends itself by striking 
violently with its feet,'turning itself obliquely, and 
kicking backwards at its enemy. Cuvier says that 
it strikes also with its wing-shafts. It is bold and 
resolute, but by no means intelligent. This bird is 
much inferior in size to the ostrich ; but it is robustly 
built, and very strong. Bontius remarks that the 
eggs are very diff'erent from those of the ostrich, by 
reason of their thinness and colour, for their shell is 
greenish, ornamented with deeper-tmted numerous 
tubercles. They are eaten by the natives. Cuvier 
says that the cassowary, like the ostrich, abandons 
its eggs, and that they are hatched by the heat of 
the climate. Fig. 1811 represents the Head and 
Foot of the Cassowary ; Fig. 1812, the Skull of the 
Young Cassowary, before the osseous helmet, which 
increases with age, has begun to be elevated ; Fig. 
1813, the Skull of the Adult Cassowary, with the 
horny helmet (which during life is encased with 
hornj greatly developed. 

Family APTERYGID^ (APTERYX). 

This family is limited, as far as we yet know, to 
New Zealand. 

1814. — The Apteryx 

(Apteryx Anstralis). Kiwi-kiwi of the natives of 
New Zealand. 

New Zealand presents us with the Apteryx, or 
Kiwi-kiwi, so extraordinary a bird, and so anomalous 
in its conformation, that the existence of a species 
possessing such a combination of characters has 
been denied. The original specimen, namely, that 
described by Shaw, and for many years the only one 
extant in Europe, is in the cabinet of the Earl of 
Derby. It was brought home in 1812, by Captain 
Barclay, of the ship Providence. Within the last 
few years, however, since New Zealand has been 
visited by intelligent Europeans, several other spe- 
cimens have been received ; and among them one 
complete bird, preserved in brine, which has enabled 
Professor Owen to give a most elaborate account of 
its anatomy (published in the second vol. of the 
' Trans. Zool. Soc.'), accompanied with admirable 
engravings. (See also 'Pioceeds. Zool. Soc, 1838.; 

'The apteryx stands about two lectin height. Its 
wings are trifling rudiments, buried beneath the 
general plumage of the body, and not to be dis- 
covered without difficulty ; they are each terminated 
by a little hooked claw. 

The beak is long, slender, and slightly arched, 
reminding one of that of the curlew. The upper 
mandible is somewhat swollen and notched at its 
tip, and a longitudinal furrow runs along each side 
from the base to the extremity. The situation of 
the nostrils is most extraordinary ; they are minute 
narrow fissures, one on each side of the tip oC the 
beak ; and therefore not situated as in other buds 
which insert their long beaks into mud for the pur- 
pose of procuring insects, and which have the nostrils 
at the base. The limbs are e.\tremely powerful ; the 
tarsi are thick and short, and covered wi'.li hard 
scales. The toes are four in number; the three 
anterior toes are robust, with strong claws, and are 
well adapted for digging. The hind toe is a thck. 




Kit.— Pom of A|<nT<. 



<g ?""^ 




WV" 



l913.-Bmi>fAptcrTi. 




18I4^A(i(rrrx. 




1810. — Cassowaries. 




IBia^SkuU of Adnit Cmmwut. 






ISIZ.— SInill of Youg OMWury. 



1309.— Cimnraiy.* 



1311,— Hend and Fool of CiMOwary. 



12 








1320 —Dodo, from H«b«l. 



^ 




-^-^- 



1819.— Dodo, from Cluiiiu. 



1821.— Dodo, from Uontins. 




1824,— Foot of Dodo in lirilish Museum 



1822.— I,e Solitaire, from Lejuat. 



13 



14 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Dodo. 



shaq>, homy spur, used as an offonsive weanon. 
Tliere is no veklige of a tail. Tlie tongue is wiort 
-and simple. 

The leathers are long and lanceolate, and fall 
loosely like tho.e of the emeu, but there is only a 
single plume from each quill. These feathers are 
of a chestnut brown, manriiicd on each side with 
blacki^ brown : the tint of those on thu under parts 
is lighter. The eye is small, and a number of long 
bristle-like hairs arc scattered around and about the 
angles of the mouth. The bill is of a horn colour, 
or yellowish, like a piece of cane. 

It is principally in the southern parts of the 
middle island of New Zealand that this bird is to be 
met with, though it exists wherever suitable locali- 
ties afford it shelter — these are extensive beds of 
fern, among which it conceals itself. When chased 
it takes refuge in the clefts of rocks, in hollow trees, 
or in deep holes which it excavates in the ground ; 
these holes are its breeding-places, and conduct to 
a deep chamber, in which thu apteryx makes a bed 
of fcni for the eggs, bat neither the number nor the 
colour of these is satisfactorily determined, nor do 
we know any particulars respecting their incuba- 
tion. 

Tlie food of this strange bird consists of insects, 
and particularly worms; in order to procure the latter 
it disturbs them by striking with its feet and bill on 
the ground, and seizes them the instant they make 
their appearance ; it will also thrust its bill into soft 
soil and draw them out, swallowing them whole. 
Night is the season of activity, the apterj-x being 
nocturnal in its habits, and the natives are accu.s- 
tomed to hunt it by torch-light ; they value it 
greatly for the sake of its skin, which they prepare 
with the feathers on. Dresses made with these 
skins (which are singularly tough and firm) are 
prized by the chiefs, who can rarely be induced to 
part with them. 

When the apteryx is undisturbed and quietly 
resting, savs Mr. Snort in' a letter to Mr. Yarrell 
('Trans. Z'ool. Soc' 18,^3), the head is thrown back 
upon theshouldere, the bill pointing to the ground. 
When pursued, it elevates the head, like an ostrich 
and runs with great swiflness. When overtaken, it 
defends itself with spirit and vigour, and inflicts 
dangerous blows with its strong spur-armed feet. 

Such is the sum total of our knowledge of the 
habits of this bird, which seems doomed to become, 
at no distant date, exterminated from the limited 
portion of the globe which alone forms its habitat. 
A beautiful figure is given of it by Mr. Gould, in 
the second part of his • Birds of Australia and New 
Zealand.' 

Fig. 181") represents the Bill of the Apteryx ; Fig, 
1816, the Foot of the same bird. 

Family DIDIDyK (DODO). 
This family contains only one established genus, 
Didus ; and the only species, as far as we can ascer- 
tain, included in it, is extinct. 

1817.— The Dodo 

(DUius Uiephis^.. Dronte, Bontius; Walgh-Viigel of 
the Dutch mariners, according to Clusiiis; Dod-aers 
of the Dutch, and Dod-eereen ; Solifario of the 
Portuguese ; Gallus gallinaceus peregrinus, Clusius ; 
Cygnus cucuUatus, Nieremberg. 

Till the discovery, in ISC'), of the islands now called 
Bourbon, Mauritius, and Rodrigue (but first termed 
the Mascarenhas Isles, from the name of the Por- 
tuguese navigator who discovered them), they ap- 
pear never to have been occupied as a residence by 
man; perhaps no human foot had ever trod thei'r 
shores, no human voice broken the stillness of their 
woodland solitudes. In these islands for ages had 
the dodo existed undisturbed, at least by the great 
marauder, by whom at last its race was to be ex- 
tinguished. 

It appears, indeed, if the species be the same, that 
the dodo was at one time not confined to those 
islands, and that it was, previously to 150.5, known to 
the Portuguese mariners under the name of Solitario ; 
for Vasco de Gama, in 14U7, after doubling the Cape 
of Storms (the Cape of Good Hope), found an island 
near a bay (Angra de San Blaz) where solitaries 
were plentiful, and again in 1499 touching at the 
same place, the crew took a number of them. The 
sailors compared these birds to swans, and called the 
island "Ilha des Cisnes," or Isle of Swans. In 1614 
Castleton visited Bourbon ; there he found the dodo 
abundant, and so tame as to allow itself to be killed 
with sticks or stones. He had also met with the 
bird in Mauritius, where they are, as he states, in 
great plenty, and known by the name of giants. 
The island of Uodrigue, wliich, though previously- 
known, had perhaps not been visited, being sur- 
rounded by coral reefs, and also being destitute of 
secure anchorage, was examined by Leguat in 1091, 
who, with several companions, remained some time' 
with a view to colonization. He there found the 
dodo, which he terms Solitaire, or the solitary be- 
cause it never congregates in flocks, though it is 



very abundant. He gives some particulars respect- 
ing it, which agree in the main with those detailed 
in ' Herbert's Travels,' published in 1634, and accom- 
panied by a figure. 
"The males have generally a greyish or brown 

Elumage, the feet of the turkey, and also the beak, 
ut a little more hooked. They have hardly any 
tail, and their rump, covered with feathers, is rounded 
like the croup of a horse. They stand higher than 
the turkey-cock, and have a straifjht neck, a little 
longer in proportion than it is in that bird when it 
raises its head. The eye is black and lively, and 
the head without any crest or tuft. They do not 
fly, their wings being too short to support the weight 
of their bodies ; they only use them in beating thtir 
sides, and in whirling round.'' The females he states 
to be of a blond or pale brown colour : they build a 
nest with leaves of the palm-tree on a clear spot of 
ground, laying only one egg, larger than that of a 
goose. Tile weight of .the males is forty-five or 
fiHy pounds, and the flesh is, as he says, a delicacy. 
In this description one important point is omitted, 
that is, the hooded character of the head, well ex- 
pressed in the account alluded to in Herbert's Travels. 
I^gunt's figure is either very bad or his solitaire is 
distinct from the dodo. 

In the Voyage to the East Indies, by Jacob van 
Neck and Wybrand van Warwyk, 1598, the dodo is 
noticed as inhabiting the island of Cerne (.Mau- 
ritius); and De Hiy, in his description of the island 
of Cerne, says, '■ Cerulean parrots abound there, as 
well as other birds ; besides which is another kind, 
of large size, exceeding our swans, with vast heads, 
and one half covered with a skin, as it were, hooded. 
These birds are without wings, in the place of which 
are three or four black feathers. A few curved, 
delicate, ash-coloured feathers constitute the tail. 
These birds we called Walck-Vogel, because the 
longer or more slowly they were cooked, the worse 
they were for eating. Their breasts and bellies 
were nevertheless of a pleasaflt flavour, and easy of 
mastication ; but another cause for the appellation 
we gave them was the preferable abundance of 
turtle-doves, which were of a far sweeter and more 
grateful flavour." De Bry gives a figure in his 
frontispiece. Clusius, in his ' Exotica,' i605, gives 
a figure of this bird, taken from a sketch ad natu- 
ram, by a Dutch voyager, who had seen the bird in 
1598. In the ' Voyage of Jacob Heemskirk and 
Wolfert Harmansz to the East Indies in 1601, 1G02, 
1603,' and in Willem Ysbrantsz Bontckoe van 
Hoorn"s 'Journal of the East India Voyage, &c., in 
1618 to 1624,' the dodo is noticed as inhabiting the 
Mauritius. Herbert, in his ' Tiavels,' 1634, describes 
and figures the dodo ; it is also described and figured 
well by Bontius, 1658. To this catalogue of autho- 
rities more might be added — but we vvill not weary 
our readers. Among the many descriptions of the 
bird by travellers and writers of credit, we will con- 
tent ourselves with that of Bontius. "The Dronte, 
or Dod-aere," he says, " is for bigness of mean size 
between an ostrich and a turkey, from which it 
partly differs in shape and partly agrees vi'ith them, 
especially with the African ostriches, if you consider 
the rump, quills, and feathers ; so that it was like a 
pigmy among them, if you regard the shortness of 
its legs. It hath a great, ill-favoured head, covered 
with a kind of membrane resembling a hood ; great 
black eyes ; a bending, prominent, I'at neck ; an 
extraordinary long, strong, bluish-white bill, only 
the ends of each mandible are of a different colour, 
that of the upper black, that of the nether yellow- 
ish, both shar()-pointed and crooked. It gapes huge 
wide, as being naturally very voracious. Itsbody is 
fat, round, covered with soft grey feathers, after the 
manner of an ostrich's ; in each side, instead of hard 
wing-feathei-s or quills, it is furnished with small, 
soft-feathered wings, of a yellowish ash-colour ; and 
behind, the rump, instead of a tail, is adorned with 
five small curled feathers of the same colour. It 
hath yellow legs, thick, but very short ; four toes in 
each foot, solid, long, as it were scaly, armed with 
strong black claws. It is a slow-paced and stupid 
bird,. and which easily becomes a prey to the fowlers. 
The flesh, especially of the breast, is fat, esculent, 
and so copious, that three or four dodos will some- 
times suffice to fill an hundred seamen's bellies. If 
they be old, or not well boiled, they are of difficult 
concoction, and are salted and stored up for pro- 
vision of victual. There are found in their stomachs 
stones of an ash-colour, of divers figures and mag- 
nitudes ; yet not bred there, as the common people 
and seamen fancy, but swallowed by the bird ; as 
though by this mark also nature would manifest that 
these fowl are of the ostrich kind, in that they swal- 
low any hard things, though they do not digest 
them." (Willughby's Trans!.) 

There is some reason to believe that a living dodo 
was exhibited in England in 1638. (See Sloane's 
MSS., No. 1839, .5, p. 108, Brit. Mus.) 

In the British Museum is preserved a painting of 
this bird, the copy of an original which was taken 
from a living specimen sent to Holland from Mau- 



ritius, while this island was held by the Dutch. 
This copy was the property of Sir Hans Sloane, and 
afterwai'ds of Edwards, by whom it was deposited in 
the Museum. As it agrees with other figures, 
namely, one in Clusius, one in Herbert's ' Travels," 
and one in Willughby's ' Ornithology,' taken from 
Bontius, we have every reason to rely upon it as an 
accurate representation. Formerly a perfect speci- 
men, noticed by Hay, existed in Tradescant's 
Museum. This specimen afterwards passed into 
the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, where it still 
existed as late as 1700; it subsequently fell to 
decay, the head and a foot alone remaining. A foot 
of this bird is preserved in the British Museum, 
and a breastbone in the Museum at Paris. 

We have now before us a cast of the head in thet 
Ashmolean Museum, and a most extraordinary head, 
it is: there is something greatly vulture-like in the 
whole of its conformation. For example, as we find 
in the vultures, it was evidently capable of being 
retracted within a hood or duplicature of skin thinly 
covered with downy feathers; the beak is stout, 
deep, and powerful, considerably elongated, and 
strongly hooked at the tip; its base is covered with 
an extensive cere, at the termination of which, near 
the edge of the upper mandible, are the nostrils ; 
the gape is wide, extending beyond the eye ; the 
skin of the throat was loose and thinly clothed, and 
the top of the head appears to have been naked, or 
only sprinkled with feathers. The measurements 
are as follow: — from the eye to the end of the 
beak, six inches; to the nostril, three inches ; breadth 
of the skull across the forehead, three inches and a 
quarter; mean depth of beak, two inches and a 
([uarter. Though we say the head is vulture-like in 
its contour, we would guard ourselves from the 
assertion that it was to the vulture family the dodo 
belonged, as M. Blainville and some naturalists con- 
tend : other parts of its structure, to judge from the 
painting and the descriptions of early travellers, 
militate against such a supposition. Cuvier refera 
it to the gallinaceous order. Unfortunately we have 
no means of coming to a positive conclusion ; but 
our impression is that it forms part of the group or 
order to which the true ostriches and apteryx also 
belong. 

Suddenly, and apparently about the middle of the 
seventeenth or beginning of the eighteenth century, 
the dodo disappeared. Nothing was heard of it ; 
and we only know that it does not now exist in the 
islands which abundant testimony proves it to have 
once inhabited. It is, in fact, extinct ; or, if it 
indeed survive, Madagascar is the most likely spot 
in which it lingers. We know, indeed, little of 
Madagascar, and have been recently astonished by 
the discovery of a species of monkey (Ceicopithecus 
albogularis) inhabiting certain districts of that 
island, which modern naturalists have strenuously 
asserted to be destitute of any true Simiae. 

In concluding this brief notice of the dodo we 
refer our readers to a paper by Mr. Duncan in the 
' Zoological Journal,' which contains an admirable 
summary of its history. 

The following are figures of the dodo from differ- 
ent works :— Fig. 1818, the Dodo, from De Bry ; Fig. 
1819, the same, from Clusius ; Fig. 1820, the same, 
from Herbert: Fig. 1821, the same, from Bontius; 
Fig. 1822. le Solitaire, from Leguat ; Fig. 1823, the 
Head of the Dodo, from a cast from the Oxford spe- 
cimen ; Fig. 1824, the Leg of the Dodo, from the 
specimen in the British Museum. Tai-sus four 
inches and a half; circumference four inches ; 
middle toe three inches. 

The subjoined letter from Professor Owen to Mr. 
Broderip is published in the ' Penny Cyclopajdia.* 
It is too important to be omitted : — 

" Whilst at the Hague," writes the Professor, " in 
the summer of 1838, I was much struck with the 
minuteness and accuracy with which the exotic spe- 
cies of animals had been painted by Savery and 
Breughel in such subjects as 'Paradise,' 'Orpheus 
charming the Beasts,' &c., in which scope was al- 
lowed for grouping together a great variety ol ani- 
mals. Understandini; that the celebrated menagerie 
of Prince Maurice had afforded the living models to 
these artists, I sat down one day before Savary's 
' Orpheus and the Beasts,' to make a list of the species 
which the picture sufficiently evinced that the ar- 
tist had had the opportunity to study alive, .ludge 
of my surprise and pleasure in detecting in a dark 
corner of the picture (which is badly hung between 
two windows) the Dodo, beautifully finished, .show- 
ing for example, though but three inches long, the 
auricular circle of feathers, the scutation of the 
tarsi, and the loose structure of the caudal plumes. 
In the number and proportions of the toes, and in 
general tbrm, it accords with Edwards's oil-painting 
in the British Musum; and I conclude that the 
miniature must have been copied from the study of 
a living bird, which it is most probable formed part 
of the Mauritian menagerie. 

" The bird is standing in profile, with a lizard at 
its feet. Not any of the Dutch naturalists to whom 



Bustards.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



15 



I applied for information respecting the picture, the 
artist, and his subjects, seemed to be aware of the 
existence of this evidence of the dodo in the Hague 
collection. 

" I think I told you that ray friend Professor 
Eschricht, of Copenhas;en, had written to inform me 
that the skull of a dodo had been lately discovered 
in the museum at Copenhagen : it had before formed 
part of the museum of Duke of Gottoip." 

In Nov., 1S39, Professor Owen, at a meeting of the 
Zool. Soc, exhibited the thigh-bone of an extinct 
bird of the struthious order, from New Zealand ; 
since which period he has received numerous addi- 
tional specimens and almost entire skeletons, proving 
that several races of birds (five distinct species), one 
of which was of gigantic stature, have till a com- 
paratively recent period existed in that island, where 
the apteryx, their pigmy representative, is soon, per- 
haps, about to follow their fate. The bones are not 
truly fossilized, but still contain much animal mat- 
ter. At a recent meeting of the Zool. Soc, Profes- 
sor Owen brought the specimens in question before 
the scientific world, and entered into elaborate de- 
tails respecting their anatomical peculiarity. To 
the extmct genus of birds in question he gave 
the title of Dinornis. Of the five presumed species, 
three were respectively named D. giganteus, D. 
struthioides, and D. didiformis ; of these the first 
must have stood at least ten feet six inches in height, 
and probably more. They appear to have been all 
wingless. Professor Owen assigns the extinction of 
these birds to a period shortly after the occupation 
of New Zealand, perhaps till then untrodden by the 
foot of man, by the Malay race, of which the New 
Zealanders are an offset ; and as these birds pre- 
sented to the wanderers (driven perhaps on the 
coasts of that island by storms) the only large ani- 
mals which could serve as food, he argues, with 
much reason, that the improvident extinction of 
these birds, and the consequent failure of food, led to 
that practice of cannibalism tor which the New 
Zealanders have been notorious. The preservation 
of the apteryx, after the destruction of its relatives 
(for they belonged to the family Apterygidae), he 
justly attributes to its much smaller size, but especi- 
ally its nocturnal and burrowing habits. (November, 
1843.) We have here, then, within human records, 
perhaps two species of Dodo and five of Dinornis 
obliterated by the agency of man from the cata- 
logue of living animals. 



ORDER GRALLATORES. 

Thk word Grallatores, which literally means Stilt- 
walkers, is synonymous with the French term les 
Echassiers, which Cuvier has given to the present 
order, and which is in truth very applicable to the 
birds in general compreliended in it. It has by 
many naturalists been termed the Wading order, a 
■title which is correct as respects the greater number 
of groups, but not all. The birds of this order, says 
Cuvier, are characterized by want of feathers at the 
lower part of the thighs and the elevation of the 
tarsi, two circumstances which permit them to 
wade to a certain depth without wetting their 
plumage, and thus to procure fish by means of their 
neck and beak, the length of which is generally 
proportionate to that of the legs. Such as have the 
beak strong live on fish and reptiles; those in 
which it is feeble, on worms and insects. A few 
feed partially on grains and herbage, and these live 
at a distance from water, frequenting open plains, 
downs, and extensive commons. The order Gral- 
latores is very extensive, and contains a variety of 
forms, from the bustards to the snipes and rails, 
differing no less in habits and instincts than in ex- 
ternal and internal characteristics. 

Family OTID^ (BUSTARDS). 

The bustards are peculiar to the Old World, 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, and have the body stout, 
the wings moderate or ample, the neck and legs 
long, the beak short, conical, and compressed : three 
shoit stout toes entirely united at their base, but no 



1825, 1826, 1827.— The Great Bustard 
{Otis Tarda). Outarde of the French; Starda of 
the Italians ; Der grosse Trappe, Trappgans, and 
Akentrap of the Germans ; Abutarda of the Spa- 
niards; yr Araf Ehedydd of the Welsh. (Hg. 
1827, Female.) 

This noble bird, which was once common in our 
island, is now rarely to be seen, except, we believe, 
in the weastern part of Norfolk ; it is true that it oc- 
casionally makes its appearance on the wide plains 
and commons, in various parts of the country, as 
Salisbury plain, Newmarket heath, and North Stow 
heath in the neighbourhood of Bury St. Edmunds, 
but unfortunately its presence attracts observation, 
and observation in such a case is generally followed 
by active measures conducing to its destruction. 
In Spain and the plains of Greece, in some parts of 
Russia, and on the wilds of Tartary, it is common ; 
it is occasionally seen in some parts of France, very 
rarely in Italy. 

The male bustard weighs from twenty-five to 
thirty pounds, and measures about three feet three 
inches in length. The female seldom exceeds one- 
third of the size of the male. Grain, various grasses, 
the tender leaves and sprouts of turnips, insects, 
worms, frogs, &c., constitute their food. In the adult 
male there exists a membraneous pouch beneath 
the skin on the fore-part of the neck, having an en- 
trance to it under the tongue ; it is of considerable 
capacity, being capable, according to Pennant, of 
containing seven pints of water : it has been, indeed, 
supposed by some that the use of this sac is for car- 
rying a supply of water, either for its own use or 
that of the female and her young ; but as the male 
takes no care of the brood, and as no water has ever 
been found in this pouch, this supposition is unte- 
nable. Its use, in fact, is not known. 
! The bustard runs very swiftly, and we have ac- 
j counts of its having been chased by dogs, which we 
can readily credit, because a good greyhound would 
I press so hard as not to allow the bird the time of 
preparation for taking wing, should he come upon 
it by surprise. On the other hand, however, we 
agree with Mr. Selby, who says, " Upon being dis- 
turbed, so far from running in preference to flight, 
as has been often described, it rises upon wing with 
great facility, and flies with much strength and 
swiftness, usually to another haunt, which will 
sometimes be at the distance of six or seven miles. 
It has also been said that in former days, when the 
species was of common occurrence, it was a practice 
to run down the young birds, before they were able 
to fly. with greyhounds, as aft'ording excellent di- 
version. So far from this possibility existing with 
respect to the present remnant of the bird, the 
young birds upon being alarmed constantly squat 
close to the ground, in the same manner as the 
young of the lapwing, golden plover, &c., and in 
, this position are frequently taken by the hand : in- 
i deed, this is even the habit of the female at the time 
of incubation." 

In the ' Booke of Falconrie ' (1611) the bustard is 
mentioned as affording what was termed the "great 
flight,' together with the crane, wild goose, bittern, 
heron, &c., a proof in favour of Mr. Selby's observa- 
tion, that it gives preference to the wing when 
alarmed. In the winter the bustard associates in 
small flocks, which traverse the country in search 
of food, and visit turnip-fields for the sake of the 
leaves, to which they are very partial ; in severe 
weather they seek sheltered situations, and often 
resort to the maritime districts. The eggs of the 
bustard are two in number, as is usual with the birds 
of this family ; the female forms no definite nest, 
but deposits them on the ground in a slight depres- 
sion made to receive them, generally in extensive 
corn-fields; they exceed in size those of the turkey, 
and are of a pale brownish olive, with darker 
blotches. Incubation lasts four weeks, and the 
young as soon as excluded follow their parents, but 
are unable to take wing for a considerable period. 
As an article of food the flesh of the bustard is in high 
estimation ; it is dark in colour, short in fibre, and of 
fine flavour. In its wild state the bustard is very shy, 
so as not to be approached within gun-shot, unless 



markings of black ; under parts white, a tinge of 
yellow occupying the chest. Tail white, at the base, 
passing into yellowish brown, with- one or two black 
bars. 

The female is destitute of the moustache-feathers, 
and the head and neck have a deeper tint of grey 
than in the male. Gular pouch wanting. 

1828. — The Black-headed Bustard 

(0/i.s mjgricepn). This fine species is a native of 
India, and is very generally spread : it occurs in the 
Himalaya Mountains, and is figured by Mr. Gould 
in his ' Century of Birds' from that elevated chain 
According to Colonel Sykes, it is so common in the 
Dukhun, "that one gentlemen has shot neaily a 
thousand." It is gregarious, and the male is fur- 
nished with the remarkable gular pouch found in 
the Otis Tarda. Its flesh is excellent. The food of 
this spieces was found by Colonel. Sykes to consist 
almost exclusively of grasshoppers. In the male 
the body above is of a pale bay, lightly undulated 
with rufous brown. Neck, a few spots on the wings 
and under parts, white. The head, which is crested, 
the outer wing-coverts, the quills, and a large mark 
on the breast, black. Length fifty-six inches and a 
half. The female resembles the male in plumage, 
but is only forty-one inches and a half in length. 

1829. — The Leaden-tinted Bustard 

{Otis ccBrulescens). This species is a native of the 
plains of South Africa, where it was discovered by 
Le Vaillant. Its habits and manners are those of the 
family generally. The summit of the head is marked 
with black and reddish zigzags, straight, and nearly 
approximated. Above the eyes extends a large 
whitish band, punctured as it were with brown; 
plumes near the ear-opening of a clear ruddy colour. 
Under the neck a semicircular band of pure white ; 
and below, another twice as large, of deep black. 
Front of the neck, breast, and all the other lower 
parts of a lead colour. All the upper parts of the 
body of a reddish or yellowish brown, marked with 
black zigzags and dots very near together. Lower 
coverts of the wings and tail-feathers unspotted, 
ruddy. End of the tail black, tinged with brown. 
Quills black. Feet yellowish green. Bill brown, 
yellow at the base. Length tvyenty inches ; height, 
when erect, seventeen inches six lines. 

1830. — The Kori Bustard, Head of 

{Ot'is Kon). This magnificent bird is a native of 
Southern Africa, and was found by Burchell on the 
banks of the Gariep. "We shot," he says, " a large 
bird of the bustard kind, which was called Wilde 
Paauw (Wild Peacock). This name is here very 
wrongly applied, as the biid to which it properly 
belongs difters from this in every respect. There 
are, indeed, three or perhaps four birds to which, in 
different districts, this appellation is given. The 
present species, which is called Kori in the Sichuana 
language, measured, in extent of wing, not less than 
seven feet, and in bulk and weight was almost 
greater than some of the people could manage. 
The under part of the body was white, but the 
upper part was covered with fine lines of black on 
a light chesnut-coloured ground. The tail and 
quill-feathers partook of the general colouring of 
the back ; the shoulders were marked with large 
blotches of black and white, and the top of the head 
was black ; the feathers of the occiput were elon- 
gated into a crest, those of the neck were also 
elongated, loose, narrow, and pointed, and were of 
a whitish colour marked with numerous transverse 
lines of black. The irides were of a beautiful pel- 
lucid, changeable, silvery, ferruginous colour. Its 
body was so thickly protected by feathers that our 
largest-sized shot made no impresssion ; and, taught 
by experience, the hunters never fire at it but with 
a bullet. It is reckoned the best of the winged 
game in the country, not only on account of its size, 
but because it is always found to abound in fat. 
The meat of it is not unlike that of a turkey, but 
is certainly superior as possessing the flavour of 



game. 

We may here mention the Otis Tetrax and the 
Otis Houbara as European species of this group ; 



snoii sioui IOCS euureiy uiuteu ai iiieir uasf, uui iiu i so as noi TO DC appruaciieu wuMiEi f^uM-ain^t, ....,c=.:, ,„..--- „,.o „,.„„,.,.on,.<. in nnr islnnri tfip 

hind-toe. , They frequent wide plains, extensive [i with great caution : it always selects for its place of N he former of la^^^^ 



downs, and open lands dotted with patches of shrub 
by vegetation. Their food consists of tender herbage, 
grain, and insects. They run with extreme rapidity, 
and unless closely pursued, seldom take wing; when 
obliged to rise, their flight is direct and rapid. They 
are shy and watchful, and not to be approached, 
without some difficulty. In their habits they are po- 
lygamous. The females quit the society of the male 
previous to laying egus, and they make their nest 
and incubate alone. The moult of these birds is 
stated to take place twice in the year. The males 
not only exreed the females in size, but are distin- 
guished by a richer style of colouring. The young 
males of the year resemble the females, and the 
adult males, it is believed, lose in winter their orna- 
mented livery, and nearly resemble the females. 



repose the centre of the largest inclosure, or if the 
country be open, that part of the plain where it will 
be most secure from the danger of a surprise. Those 
which have been kept in confinement, though tole- 
rably tame towards persons with whom they were 
familiar, have exhibited both distrust and ferocity 
towards strangers. All attempts to breed these 
birds in captivity have failed. 

In the male bustard, from each side of the cheeks, 
near the lower mandible, arises a tuft of long wiry 
feathers with loose barbs. The fore part of the neck 
over the pouch is destitute of feathers, the skin 
beinc bluish black. The head and back of the neck 
are bluish grey ; a longitudinal streak of black oc- 
cupies the top of the head. The upper surface is 
of a fine orange buff, barred with zigzag transverae | 



latter as rare within the borders of Europe, but 
common in Baibary. Arabia, Persia, &c., where the 
natives employ hawks in the chace of it, and enter 
with enthusiasm into the sport. (See vol. i. p. 270.) 
In India, where there are several species, these bus- 
tards are commonly termed Florikens. 

Family CHARADRIAD^ (PLOVERS). 
In this comprehensive group the legs are long, the 
toes short, the hinder generally wanting or minute, 
and the wings long and powerful. Sandy unbhel- 
tered shores and exposed commons or moois are 
their chief haunts ; they congregate in flocks, and 
run with great swiftness: the head is thick; the 
eye full and large ; the bill short, with the basal 
half soft, the apex often swollen : the habits often 









ina.— Hnd of Kari niiniinl. 




lllZ7 — firnil Hnttard. Fraialr. 



IS2!I.— Uiulcn tiDted BuiUtd. 




1828.— Klax^k-heided Buurd. 



]a:iJ.— Gteal Busuni. 



1826.— Great llustanl. Male. 















1831, 



iasp. 



1 Thick-kBM. 




1832.— Common Thlck-knw. 



ll33^He«d and Foot of Thi«k-knM. 



16 




iaS7.— DoltereL 




lg40. — Head and Foot of Grey Plover. 






1844.— TuTCjtone. 



IH42.— Head and Foot of fiapving 



1818.— Qny Plonr. 




t^H'C^^-^ 



1834.— Golden Plover. 



%,/. 



■r ■■ 




l^l'Af 



lfl43.— Spar-win^ Plover. 







1839. — Grey Plover. 







IH3J.— Ooldeu PUner. 



No. 53. Vol II. 



[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



17 



18 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Plovers. 



nocturnal. The number of eggt laid by the Temalea 
if generally four, sometime* two. Most are subject 
to a kpring and autumn moult, and the Mimmer 
livery Jitfer* from that of winter. 

1831, 1832.— Tub Common Thick-k:»kk 

((Edicnemus crepitant). Le grand Pluvier ou 
Courii* de Terre of the French ; Gran Pivieri, Cur- 
lolte, Ciurlul, and Ciurlovl of the Italianii ; Grower 
Brachvopel of the Germans ; y glin-Biaff of the 
VVel»h; Tliick-kneed Bustard, Stone-Curlew, and 
Norfolk Plover of Enc'is-h writer*.. 

Wide downs and commons, uplands, and sheep- 
walk* are the favourite resorts of this bird, where it 
makes its appearance in March or April, in small 
flocks, which are very shy, flying round in wide 
circles if disturbed from their repose. They run 
along very nimbly, with the head poked forwards; 
and squat amongst loose stones and the irregularities 
of broken ground, where the colour of the objects 
•bout favours their concealment. In Hampshire, 
Norfolk, Suff"olk, Sussex, &c., this bird is tolerably 
common. In Germany, as in England, it is migra- 
tory. It is found in Southern Europe, generally in 
India, North Africa, Egypt, the Greek Archipelago, 
and Turkey. 

Though the Thick-knee is wary and watchful by 
day, and readily takes alarm, this is in reality its 
resting time, and it is at night that it rouses up in 
pursuit of food. As the dusk of evening appi caches, 
it begins to utter its loud piping note, and trips over 
the dewy grass, picking up worms, insects and 
young frogs, which form its cnief diet. The Thick- 
knee, like the bustard, makes no nest, but deposits 
its eggs, two in number, on the bare earth, in lallow 
land or spots of ground where flint stones are 
scattered about, spotting as it were the earth, and 
favouring the concealment of the female and her 
progeny, whose plumage assimilates with the 
chequered and mottled appearance of the surface 
which she has selected. The eggs are of a light 
yellowish brown, with darker streaks and blotches. 
The young af\er exclusion immediately follow their 
parents, and are then covered with a mottled grey 
down, which gradually gives place to the proper 
plumage, and in six weeks or two months they are 
capable of flying and of providing for themselves. 

In the autumn, after the breeding season, the 
flocks which had scattered themselves in pairs over 
the downs, and the young they have reared, assemble 
all together, forming larger or smaller flocks, and 
prepare to take their departure, quitting our latitudes 
for a more congenial climate ; and in October few, 
if any, are to be seen in the localities previously 
tenanted, and where at night their loud call had 
resounded " familiar to the shepherd's ear." 

The general plumage of this bird is of a reddish 
ash above, each feather having a central streak of 
umber brown ; neck and chest yellowish white, 
streaked with umber brown : throat and under parts 
white ; quills black ; base of the bill bright yellow- 
ish ; naked skin round the eyes; iris and legs fine 
yellow. Length sixteen inches. 

In the genus (Edicnemus the bill is strong and 
nearly straight ; the nostrils longitudinal, and pierced 
through and through the horny part of the middle 
of the upp«r mandible ; the tarsi long, and thick at 
the joints : the toes are three, all before, and united 
as far as the second joint by a membrane which 
skirts their edges ; wings rather ample. Mr. Gould 
considers that this genus connects the plovers to the 
bustards. Five or six species are known. Fig. 1833 
represents the Head and Foot. 

1834, 1835.— The Golden Plover 

{Charadrius pluvialis). In the genus Charadrius 
the bill is slender, straight, compressed, and shorter 
than the head ; the nasal furrow is prolonged, and 
the mandibles are enlarged towards the tip. Toes 
three, all directed forwards, and the external united 
to the middle by a short membrane. Eyes large, 
nocturnal. 

Fig. 1836 represents the Head and Foot of Chara- 
drius. 

The Golden Plover (Pluvier dorft of the French) 
is a bird of passage, spread over Europe, Western 
Asia, and portions of North Africa. In North Ame- 
rica its place is supplied by an allied species (Ch. 
Virginiacus, Borkli), and by the C. marmoratus in 
the eastern parts of Asia. 

Though the golden plover breeds in the British 
Isles, it is only to be found in the southern districts 
during the winter, at which seai>on the numbers of our 
native birds are increased by arrivals from more 
northern latitudes — all, be it observed, clad in their 
; wintry livery, which difi'ers remarkably from that of 
the summer. 

Heathy swampy moors and wild hilly districts are 
( the haunts of this species, where it breeds ; its nest 
consists of a few fibres and stems of grass, placed in 
some depression of the ground amidst the heath. 
The eggs, four in number, are of a cream yellow, 
with a tinge of green, blotched and streaked with 



nmber brown. The young, when first excluded from 
the egg, are covered with a beautiful parti-coloured 
down of bright kings yellow and brown. They are 
very active, and follow the parents, who sedulously 
attend them, and not only display great anxiety in 
their protection, but put in practice the most inge- 
nious artifices in order to draw oft' man or dog from 
the spot where they lie crouched ; they will flutter 
along as if lame and unable to take wing, a few 
feet before the intruder, and, attracting his attention, 
give him as it were hopes of soon being able to 
effect a capture, till having effected its object, up it 
mounts, leaving him to gaze "in silent wonder 
lost." In the same manner they protect their eggs, 
the female always running to a considerable dis- 
tance from the nest, and even meeting the intru- 
der, long before he would approach the spot, 
before employing her parental stratagems. The 
young are able to fly in a month or five weeks, 
and joining other broods, with their parents form' 
large flocks, which quit .the hilly districts of the 
north, and make their way to the open downs bor- 
dering our southern coasts. About the beginning of 
April the flocks return northwards, gradually break- 
ing up, and at last resolving into paii-s, which soon 
fix upon a breeding-spot. The cry of the plover isa 
plaintive monotonous whistle, more varied in the 
breeding season, by the imitation of which the bird 
may be enticed within a short distance. The flight 
of this species is rapid and vigorous, and during the 
spring and summer generally at a great elevation ; 
while it sails round and round performing most 
graceful evolutions. Night is the feeding-time. 
When reposing during the day, the plover rests 
either crouched on the ground or standing on one 
leg with the head drawn down between the shoul- 
ders. Insects and their larvae, slugs, worms, &c., 
constitute their diet, for which they frequent fallow 
lands in the autumn, becoming very fat, and are 
highly esteemed as one of the luxuries of the table. 
In the southern countries of Europe this species 
winters in countless multitudes. In autumn and 
winter the Loncfon markets are abundantly supplied 
with golden plovers. 

The summer plumage of this species, assumed in 
spring, is of a deep black above, each feather having 
triangular marginal spots of golden yellow ; fore- 
head and space above the eyes pure white, as 
are also the sides of the neck and chest, but spoiled 
with black and yellow ; throat, front pf the neck, 
and under parts deep black. As winter comes on 
the black of the neck and under parts is lost ; the 
upper surface is sooty black, largely vaned with fine 
golden yellow ; the sides of the head, neck, and 
chest are varied with ashy brown and yellowish 
spots ; throat and under parts while. Length ten 
inches and a half. Fig. 1834, Summer dress ; Fig. 
1835, Winter dress. 

1837. — The Dotterel 

(Charadrius Morinellus). Le Pluvier guignard of 
the French ; dcr Dumme Regcmpfeifer of the Ger- 
mans ; Piviere toitolino of the Italians. 

Though the Dotterel certainly breeds on the 
Grampians, on Skiddaw, and other mountains in the 
northern portion of our island, yet it must be consi- 
dered rather in the light of a visitor to our shores 
than a permanent resident ; its great breeding-places 
are the high latitudes of Russia, Lapland, and 
Northern Asia. It breeds also on the bare plateaux 
of the Norwegian mountains, and in Bohemia and 
Silesia, at an elevation of four thousand eight hun- 
dred feet. 

The eggs are light olive brown, blotched and 
spotted with black. 

In the autumn vast flocks of the dotterel on their 
way from the north to the warmer regions of southern 
Europe visit our island, and a similar visit is paid in 
spring by the flocks on their return from the south 
to their northern breeding-places. 

With respect to its general habits, the dotterel 
closely agrees with the golden plover; it has been 
accused, indeed, of excessive stupidity — but for no 
other reason than because, fresh from the wilds un- 
trodden by man, it has not experienced persecution. 
Its flesh in the autumn is excellent. It undergoes a 
chfHige of plumage analogous to that of the golden 
plover. 

1838, 1839.— The Grey Plover 

(Squalarola cinered). In the genus Squatarola we 
see the rudiment of a hind-toe ; the tarsi are reticu- 
lated. Nasal groove wide. Fig. 1840 represents 
the Head and Foot of Squatarola. 

The grey plover istheVanneau vari6, Vanneau 
gris, and vanneau Pluvier of the French. 

The plumage of this species undergoes a similar 
change to that of the golden plover, and indeed so 
much do the two birds resemble each olher, that 
were it not for the presence of a minute hinil-loe in 
the grey plover, and for the long black leatheis 
which are found underneath the wings near the 
body, one might be easily mistaken fur the olher. 



The grey plover is spread over all the temperate 
countries of Europe, and Asia during the winter, re- 
tiiiug in summer to the regions of the arctic circle 
to breed. It has been observed in Japan. It isalso 
common in North America, breeding in the far 
countries of the north. According to Dr. Richard- 
son it is the Toolee-areeo or Tooglie-aiah of the 
Esquimaux. Captain J. Ross found il breeding near 
the borders of the marshes in considerable numbers, 
immediately to the south-west of Fury Point. This 
species viMts our island, but not in great numbers, 
during its southward migration in autumn, and upon 
its return northwards in spring, and a few small 
flocks sometimes remain with us during the winter, 
frequenting oozy bays and the mouths of rivers along 
the coast. Worms, insects, small shell-fish, and 
Crustacea, with various berries in summer, consti- 
tute its food. The flight is powerful and circling; 
it also runs with great celerity; its cry is similar to 
but not quite so shrill as that of the golden plover. 
The flesh is excellent, and in high esteem. It is the 
Tringa Helveticaof Linnaeus; Squatarola Helvetica 
of Gould ; and the Charadrius Africarius of Wilson. 
The young is the Tringa varia of Linnaeus. A second 
species, Squatarola cincta, was brought by Captain 
P. P. King, R. N., from the Straits of Magellan. 

1841.— The Lapwing 

( Vanellus cristatus). Le Vanneau of the French ; 
Paoncellaof the Italians; Gehaiibte Kieboz of the 
Germans; De Kievet of the Netherlanders ; Wype, 
Peesweep, and Peewit, Provincial English ; Corn- 
chwigel of the Welsh. Fig. 1842 represents the 
Head and Foot. 

In the genus Vanellus the hind-toe is more de- 
veloped than in Squatarola, and the head is orna- 
mented either with a crest, or with fleshy wattles 
and protuberances about the base of the beak, as in 
many foreign species; many also have the carpal 
joint of the wing armed with a sharp spur, often of 
considerable length. "These birds," says Selby, 
" are the inhabitants of open grounds and plains, 
particularly where the soil is of a moist nature, 
leeding on worms, insects, larvae, &c. They are 
subject to the double moult. But their vernal change 
of plumage is not attended with any remarkalue 
difference of colour." Ttie wings are ample. 

The geographical distribution of the lapwing is 
very extensive ; it is spread over the whole of 
Europe and a great part of Asia ; it occurs in collec- 
tions from India, North Africa, and Japan. In our 
island it is abundant wherever moorland tracts in- 
vite its abode. Here it breeds, depositing four eggs 
in a loose nest made with a few straws or stalks of 
grass, in a slight depression of the ground. The 
eggs are of a fine olive green blotched and marked 
with brownish black. Great numbers of these, known 
as " plovers" eggs," are annually brought into the 
London market, and, being accounted delicacies, sell 
at a good price. They are collected in Norfolk, 
Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire. When the fe- 
male is driven from her eggs, she runs for a consi- 
derable distance, and then flies low near the ground, 
uttering not a single cry : in the mean time the male 
flies round the intruder and clamorously reiterating 
the syllables pee-tt-eef, endeavours by various arts to 
draw off his attention from the female, and the spot 
where the nest is placed. When first hatched the 
young are covered with a parti-coloured down of 
yellow and brown, and follow their parents, who not 
only defend them with courage against birds of prey, 
but employ every stratagem to divert men or dogs 
from their retreat, feigning lameness, and fluttering 
and tumbling in the path before them. When the 
autumn commences, the lapwings assemble in vast 
flocks, composed of old birds and the young of the 
year; and as the cold sets in, gradually withdraw 
from the inland moorlands, visiting the districts 
near the sea and the mouths of rivers; frequenting 
fallow-lands, turnip-fields, and low oozy grounds, 
where, in the more southern parts of our island, they 
appear to remain all the year, unless the mid-winter 
be a season of more than usual severity, when they 
pass still more southward. In February or the be- 
ginning of March these birds revisit the moorlands, 
and scatter abroad in pairs. At this season their 
flight IS very singular: they perform a variety of 
fantastic evolutions (more especially the males), 
sometimes darting upwards, then suddenly sweeping 
downward.s, and describing an abrupt and mazy 
couree with many turnings; during this flight of ex- 
ultation they incessantly utter a variety of notes very 
different Iromtheirmonotonousmelancholy pee-weet, 
wliile the loud whizzing of their long pinions is dis- 
tictly audible. 

In the autumn the flesh of the peewit (or wype, as 
it is called inlhe'Norlhumberland Household-Book') 
is excellent, but, as might be expected, it is dry in 
the summer. Mr. Selby considers it to be the bird 
called Egret (from its ciest or aigrette), of which 
one thousand were seived up at ttie famous feast of 
Archbishop Nevil. Slugs, worms, and insects, con- 
stitute the diet of this bird, for the destruction of 



Cur 



KWS.j 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



19 



which it is sometimes kept in gardens, and becomes 
very tame. The lapwing is very beautiful. The 
head is black glossed with green, and an elegant 
crest of long slender black feathers, turned slightly 
upwards, rises from the occiput ; the throat is black ; 
the upper parts are greenish black with purple and 
blue reflexions; the chest and under parts are white ; 
the tail is white at the base, then black, with white 
at the tip. Length thirteen inches. 

1843. — The Spur-winged Plover 

(Pltivianus spinosus. Gould). Charadius spinosus, 
Linn.; Philomachus spinosus, Msehr; Hofopterus 
spinosus, Bonaparte. 

In this genus (whichever name be adopted) the 
legs arc long, slender, and naked a great distance 
above the tarsal joint ; there is no hind-toe, and the 
external and middle are united by means of a basal 
membrane ; wings very Jong and pointed, and armed 
with a sharp spur. 

This species is common in Greece, Egypt, and 
Senegal. It is occasionally seen in Italy ; it occurs 
in some parts of Russia, and is abundant in the 
neighbourhood of Aleppo. It is a noisy bird, and, 
as Latham says, is continually moving the head and 
neck as if making repeated bows. The top of the 
head is black, and furnished with a rather short 
occipital crest, capable of being depressed or raised 
at will. The upper surface is greyish brown; the 
greater coverts are white ; the quills black ; the 
sides of the face and neck, the back of the latter, 
the flanks, the thighs, the tail-coverts and base of 
the tail are white ; the part of the neck from the 
bill, and the chest, under parts, and terminal half of 
the tail are jet black. Length eleven inches. 

1844. — The Turnstone 

{SUrepsilas Interpres). Tringa Interpres, Linn. ; 
Monnella collaris, Meyer; Strepsilas collaris. 

We agree with those naturalists who place the 
genus Strepsilas within the family Charadrise, and 
not among the Scolopacidae, with their finger-tipped 
bills. In Strepsilas the beak is of moderate length, 
strong, compressed, acutely pointed, and slightly 
turned upwards ; nasal depression elongated • wings 
acuminate ; hind-toe very small. 

There is not a part of the globe, from Nova Zembla 
and the shores of the Arctic to the Cape of Good 
Hope, from the shores of Hudson's Bay to the straits 
of Magellan, which is not visited by this species — 
Japan, Sunda. the Moluccas, Xew Guinea, and New 
Holland, Europe, Asia, Africa, constitute its range. 
It breeds in the high northern latitudes, in Norway 
and Siveden, and also, it is said, in the Shetland 
Isles ; in June and in August it begins its southern 
progress, returning northwards in spring. Mr. Hew- 
itson found its nest on the coast of Norway placed 
against a ledge of rock, and consisting of nothing 
more than the fallen leaves of the juniper-bush, 
under a creeping branch of which the eggs, four in 
number, were concealed. Their colour was of an 
olive-green spotted and streaked with ash-blue, and 
two shades of reddish brown. In our island the 
tumstone is found from August to March or April ; 
it frequents the rocky and gravelly shore, feeding 
upon small molluscous animals, Crustacea, &c., in 
quest of which it turns over the stones along the 
water's edge, by means of its hard bill: it trips 
quickly along, and flies with great power and ra- 
pidity. In its progress to maturity the tumstone 
undergoes several transitions of colour before ac- 
quiring a permanent livery. When in perfect 
pluraase the upper parts are of mingled black 
and rufous; a black gorget on the chest passes 
up the sides of the neck and round the base ; lower 
part of the back white, as is also the basal half 
and extreme tip of the tail, the intermediate 
part being black ; a semilunar mark of dark fea- 
thers separates the white of the lower part of the 
back from the white tail-coverts ; under surface 
white ; a white spot between the eye and base of the 
beak is very conspicuous; legs orange-yellow. 
Length nine inches. 

1845.— The Oyster-Catcher 

(Hcsmafopus ostralegvs). L'Huiterier, Pie de Mer, 
and Bccasse de Mer of the French ; Beccacio di 
Mare of the Italians ; Geschackte Austernfischer of 
the Germans ; Piogen y Mor of the Welsh ; Sea Pie, 
Pianet, Olive, Sea Woodcock, Chalder, &c., pro- 
vincial English. 

In the genus Haematopus the bill is long, hard, 
compressed, especially at the point, which is abrupt 
and chisel-iike.but not pointed ; nostrils longitudinal ; 
legs strong ; toes three, all directed forwards, bordered 
by the rudiment of a membrane ; and the external 
and middle toes united l)y a partial web at the base. 

The oyster-catcher is distributed over the whole of 
the European continent and a great part of Asia 
and Africa, frequenting the sea-shore, and is common 
on the low flat coasts of our island, where it breeds, 
laying its egcs on the bare ground amidst the 
•hingle, or such herbage as grows above high-water 
Vol. II. 



mark. The eggs, four in number, are pale olive- 
green blotched with brownish black. During incu- 
bation the male is always on the watch, and on the 
approach of an intruder utters a loud shrill whistle, 
as an alarm-call, upon which the female silently 
quits her eggs, and runs to a considerable distance 
before taking wing. Limpets, which it easily de- 
taches from the rock, mussels, oysters, and other 
mollusks constitute its food, in quest of which it 
wades amongst the shallows, or swims, which it does 
very easily, where the depth forbids wading. In the 
autumn, after the young have acquired their full 
growth, these birds assemble in large flocks, which 
separate into pairs on the recurrence of spring. The 
parents are bold in the defence of their young, which 
run about as soon as hatched, under the care of the 
former. In America the oyster-catcher is represented 
by an allied species, the H.palliatus, Temminck (H. 
ostralegus, Wilson). The oyster-catcher is a beautiful 
bird. The general plumage is glossy velvet black, 
with the exception of the lower part of the back, the 
base of the tail, transverse bars on the wings, and 
the under parts, which are white ; bill and circle 
round the eyes orange-red ; irides crimson ; legs 
deep purplish red. In winter there is a collar of 
white on the throat, and the black is less brilliant. 

1846. — The Collared Pratincole 

(Glareola torquata). In many points the genus 
Glareola exhibits a great similitude (not affinity) to 
the swallows : the wings are long and pointed ; the 
tail is forked ; the power of flight extraordinary ; 
the bill is short, hard, compressed, and arched above ; 
hind-toe short. 

The Collared Pratincole is the Perdrix de Mer of 
Brisson ; das Rothfiissige Sandhuhn of Bechstein ; 
Siidliche Sandhuhn of Brehm ; and Pernice di Mare 
of Savi. Though a few instances are on record of 
this bird having been killed within the British Isles, 
it can scarcely be admitted within the catalogue of 
our Faima. It is a native of the eastern provinces 
of Europe on the Asiatic borders, and especially of 
Hungary, where extensive tracts of morass, and 
lakes, both fresh and saline, surrounded by low flat 
lands traversed by numerous rivers, afford food and 
security. In Western Tartary it is equally abundant. 
M. Temminck informs us that it breeds in Sardinia, 
and is numerous in Dalmatia, on the borders of the 
Lake Boccagnaro, on its spring passage ; and that in 
Hungary, among the immense morasses of the lakes 
Neusidel and Balaton, he has been in the midst of 
hundreds sweeping through the air in chace of their 
insect prey, and daiting along with arrow-like 
rapidity. Nor is it less remai kable for celerity on 
the ground, and often catches insects as it runs along. 
This graceful bird incubates amidst reeds, oziers, 
and the tall herbage of morasses. The eggs are 
four in number, of a yellowish white. In Germany, 
France, and Italy it is a bird of periodical occur- 
rence. Two species, the G. grallaria and the 
G. lactea, are peculiar to the eastern provinces of 
Asia and certain parts of Africa. None are 
American. The general colour of the collared pra- 
tincole is brownish grey above ; the throat is white 
with a tinge of reddish, banded by a narrow cres- 
centic line of black ; the upper tail-coverts are 
white ; the under surface dirty white ; the tail is 
forked, and brownish black ; the under wing-coverts 
are chestnut. Length nine inches and a half. 
Naked circle round the eye red. 

1847. — -The Black-bellied Svviit-foot 

(Cursoriiis Temminchii). In the genus Cursorius 
the bill is moderately long, arched, and compressed, 
with the nostrils basal, oval, and with an oblong 
lateral opening; wings pointed; legs long; toes 
three, all anterior — the middle toe the longest, with a 
serrated claw. The birds of this genus are natives 
of Africa, inhabiting inland tracts at a great dis- 
tance from the sea. and .nmning along the ground 
with extraordinary rapidity. One species, the 
Cream-coloured Swift-foot (Curs. Isabellinus) has 
been a few times seen in our island, and once in 
France, and once in Austria. 

The black-bellied swift-foot is a native of 
Abyssinia. Its general plumage is creamy brown: 
the top of the head and the breast ferruginous; a 
double nucha] collar, the upper white, the lower I 
black ; sides of body white ; the quills and centre 
of the under surface black. Length eight inches. 

Family SCOLOPACID^ (CURLEWS, SNIPES, 
SANDPIPERS). 

The members of this family are all inhabitants of 
marshy lands, the borders of swamps, lakes, and 
rivers, and the shores of the sea. Their food con- 
sists of worms, slugs, aquatic mollusks, &c. ; (or this 
purpose their bill is at once a probe, a feeler, and 
an organ of prehension. Most of the genera, ob- 
serves Mr. Selby, procure food by thrusting the bill 
into the soft earth or the mud of the shore, whence 
they extract their prey. To facilitate Ihis operation 
an extraordinary development of nerve is distributed 



over the bill, but more especially concentrated at 
the tip, which is thus endowed with an exquisite 
sense of feeling, and the membiane of that part is 
often pulpy. In many species the bill is lurther 
provided with a peculiar muscle which operates so 
as to expand the pulpy points of the mandibles, 
enabling the bird, with the bill still buried in the 
ground, to seize its prey the moment it is felt. From 
this peculiar mode of searching for their prey, many- 
species, as the snipe, woodcock, &c., have been 
called birds of suction. The distribution of the 
Scolopacidae is very general, their powers of flight 
are considerable, and they are all more or less 
migratory in their habits. They incubate on the 
ground ; the eggs are four in number, of a peculiar 
form, being small and pointed at one end, large and 
obtuse at the other, and they are usually placed in 
the nest in a circle with the acute ends meeting 
in the centre, so as to occupy as small a space as 
possible. The flesh of many is in-high estimation. 
Fig. 1848, a Group of Scolopacidae, representing-.- 
a, the Curlew ; b, the Godwit ; c, the Purre or Stint. 

1849.— The Curlew 

{Ntmenius arquatus). In the genus Numenius 
the bill is long, slender, curved, compressed, hard 
and subobtuse at the point ; the upper mandible 
exceeding the lower, rounded towards the end, and 
channelled for three-fourths of its length; nostrils 
lateral, linear, and pierced in the channel ; legs 
slender ; hind-toe small, touching the ground ; an- 
terior toes united by a membrane as high as the 
first joint ; wings moderate. 

The curlew is the Courlis of the French ; Chiar- 
lotto and Chiurle maggiore of the Italians ; der 
Grosse Krumschrablichte Schnepfe and Keilhacke 
of the Germans ; the Waup, Scotticfi ; Gylfinhr of 
the Welsh. The curlew is spread over every part 
of the Old World, from the torrid zone to the polar 
regions. It is found in India, China, Japan, and 
South Africa. 

In its habits the curlew is migratory, and during 
the winter collects in large flocks, which frequent the 
low oozy shores of the sea, easily perforated by their 
bills, which they plunge into the mud in .search of 
Ibod. It wades in the shallows, and, when out of 
its depth, swims with considerable facility. Few 
birds are more shy and wary than the curlew, and 
while on the wing it utters a clear whistle as the 
flock wheels round in wide circles through the air. 

In the high northern regions are the favourite 
breeding-haunts of the curlew, whither immense 
flocks repair early in the spring, but numbers con- 
tinue in our island, leaving the low shores and south- 
ern districts for the wild and heathy parts of the 
interior, the wilds of Northumberland, and the bleak 
Highlands of Scotland. Thenest consists of withered 
grass or rushes placed in a depression under the 
covert of heath or other herbage. The eggs, four 
in number, are of a pale olive-green, blotched with 
two tints of brown. The young, which are at first 
covered with a yellowish white down varied with 
dark spots and markings, are assiduously attended 
by their parents, who manifest great courage in their 
defence, sweeping round the head of the intruder, 
uttering a loud cry of courlis, courlis, in quick re- 
petition. In about six weeks the young are able to 
take wing. Three species of Numenius are natives 
exclusively of America 

1850. — The Whimbrel 

{Numenius Phceopus'). Le petit Courlis or Courlieu 
of the French ; Chiurlo piccolo, Chiurlo minore, 
and Mengotto of the Italians; Regen Brachvogel 
and Kleiner Goisser of the Germans ; Coeg ylfinhir 
of the Welsh. 

Though the whimbrel visits our coasts and those of 
the adjacent continent in winter, in small flocks, it 
retires to the higher northern latitudes in the spring 
to breed, Zetland being the only locality within the 
British Islands where it has been known to incubate. 
The range of this species is as extensive, or nearly 
so, as that of the curlew, which species it closely 
resembles in its habits, manners, and style of colour- 
ing but is a much smaller bird, measuring only six- 
teen inches in length, of which the bill is three and 
a half; while the curlew exceeds two feet with the 
bill, which often measures six inches. Its flesh, 
like that of the curlew, is esteemed as well flavoured. 
An allied species, Numenius tenuirostris, is a native 
of southern Europe. The colouring both of the 
curlew and whimbrel is to well known to need a 
detailed description. 

1851.— The Black-tailed Godwit 

(Limosa melanurd). Beak and Foot. In the genus 
Limosa the bill is very long, more or less curved 
upwards, soft and flexible, depressed at the apex, 
which is dilated and obtuse ; upper mandible fur- 
rowed ; legs long and slender ; hind-toe small ; outer 
and inner toes united by a basal web ; wings mode- 
rate. 
This species is the Grande Barge rousse of Bulfon ; 

D2 




I84*.— Oirlnr. 



:84'i.— OolUred Pntincole. 



IM&.— OjnteMstcIier. 




IMS. — Gioap of Seolopacidz. 




IMl.— H«d and Leg of Soipt. 



IMC— Whimbrel. 



ISDI^Beak and FootorBUek-taUea GoJwlt. 



20 









1853.— Solitary or Great Snipe. 



1 R j 5 , — Woodcock . 



1861.— Raff. 










18S9.— Rnir, in .Summer Plumage. 



1898.— Rntr and Reeves. 











Vj?>'a; 



I6:*&— Woodcock. 





18&7. — African painted Snipe. 




I860.— Buff in Winter Pliinia<>e. 



'2\ 



22 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



fSNIPKS. 



the Red Godwit of Latham ; DunkclfuMieer Was- 
wrlaufer of Meyer ; Hoatoi; of the ancient Welsh. 

Tlie godwit (with other allied species) undergoes a 
double moult, which nearly changes the entire 
colour of the plumage, and has led to some con- 
tusion ; the young of the year differ from the 
adults. In it* winter plumage this bird is the 
Limosa melanura of Lesler, and the Jadrcka Snipe 
of Latham. In its spring uluniage it is the Scolopax 
Belgica and S. »gocepliala of Gnielin. The young 
of the year is the Totanus rufns of Bechstein. The 
female exceeds the male in size, but her colours are 
lev bright. 

The black-tailed godwit breeds in the high 
northen latitmles, but occasionally within the limits 
of the British Islands ; during the winter it is spread 
along the shores of the whole of Europe, and speci- 
mens have been received both from India and Africa. 
In England the present species is not very abundant 
at any period, though it breeds sparingly in some of 
our fens. During the winter it frequents oozy shores 
and the embouchures of rivers, and plunges its long 
sensitive bill into the mud m search of food, viz., 
marine insects and worms, &c. The nest is formed 
of dry grass and herbage, and the four eggs are of 
a lii;lit olive brown, dashed with a darker tint. Its 
flesh was formeriy in high esteem. Winter plum- 
age : — upper parts uniform brown ash, the shaft 
of each feather being of a darker tint ; rump 
blackish ; front of neck, the breast, and sides, 
bright grey ; under parts and base of tail-feathers, 
and also of the quill -feathers, pure white ; a broad 
belt of black across the tail-feathers of which the 
central are slightly tipped with white ; bill orange- 
yellow at the base, black at the tip. 

Spring Plumage : — Feathers of the top of the head 
blacK, bordered with bright red; throat and neck 
red, transversely striped with fine zigzag markings; 
upper part of the back and scapulars deep black, 
terminated with a band of red and bordered by spots 
of that colour ; wing-coverts ash ; lower part of the 
back and tail black ; under parts and base of quill- 
feathers white. Length fifteen inches. In the 
young the plumage of the upper parts is brown and 
blackish brown, greatly varied with red. 

1848, b. — The Common or Red Godwit 

{Litnosa Tufa, Brisson) is closely allied to the pre- 
ceding, which it resembles in habits and manners, 
and extent of range, but may be distinguished 
by shorter legs, by the absence of white on the 
basal part of the quill-feathers, and by the tail- 
feathers being always distinctly barred. It is not 
known to breed in our island : its summer haunts 
are Iceland, Lapland, Sweden, and other northern 
countries. Both species fly very rapidly, and utter 
a singular cry while on the wing. The Prince of 
l^anino notices two species, distinct from either of 
the preceding, as peculiar to America. 

1852.— The Snipe 

{Scolopax Gallinago.) In the genus Scolopax the 
beak is long, straight, compressed, and slender, but 
swollen, minutely dimpled, and pulpy at the tip ; the 
upper mandible is furrowed through half its length ; 
the nostrils are lateral, basal, and longitudinal in 
the commencement of the furrow. Legs slender, of 
moderate length ; wings pointed ; eyes large, and 
placed back in the head. 

The common snipe is the Bdcasseau bScassine and 
Chfevre voland of the French ; Beccacino and Piz- 
zarda of the Italians; Wald-schneppe of the Ger- 
mans ; Ysnittan y Finiar of the Welsn. 

The common snipe is widely spread over Europe 
and the adjacent parts of .A.sia, being everywhere a 
birtl of migratory habits ; though it must be observed 
that it breeds in our island wherever favourable lo- 
calities afford it shelter. It was found in consider- 
able numbers in the Orkneys, by the late Sir H. 
Davy (1817), in the month of August ; he observed 
that each nest contained two young birds, sometimes 
three, and describes the parents as exceedingly at- 
tached to their oftspring, adding that if any one ap- 
proach their nest, tliey make a loud and drumming 
noise over the head of the intruder, as if to divert 
his attention. The snipe has been known to breed 
also in Dorsetshire, in the New Forest, in Cambridge- 
shire, in Norfolk, in Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. 
The nest is made of dry grass or herbage rudely put 
together, and placed in some depression under the 
covert of heath, fern, or long rushes near water, in 
swampy spots, or on marshy hills. The eggs are 
comparatively large, of a greenish white, spotted at 
the larger end with different tints of brown. i 

In winter our homebred birds are joined by vast 
accessions from Norway and other northern parts of 
Europe, the greatest number arriving in the begin- 
ning of November. These are ever on the move 
from place to place, frequenting swamps, the margins 
of rivulets, and oozy meadows along streams and 
rivers, in quest of food ; this consists of worms, in- 
sects, &c., in order to obtain which they thrust their 



bill up to its base in the mud, and are guided by its 

exquisite sensibility. 

About the beginning of April the snipe calls to his 
mate, uttering a piping or clicking note, otlen re- 
peated, and accompanied at intervals by a humming 
noise, " apparently produced by the action of the 
wings, as the bird, whenever this sound is emitted, is 
observed to descend with great velocity, and with a 
trembling motion of the pinions. At this season it 
soars to an immense height, remaining long upon 
the wing; and its notes may frequently be heard 
when the bird itself is far beyond the reach of sight. 
These flights are performed at intervals during the 
day, but more commonly towards the evening, and 
are continued during the whole time that the female 
is engaged in incubation." 

Of the ordinary flight of this bird, of its excellence 
for the table, and of the coloui-s of its plumage, 
nething need be said. The Prince of Canino pa- 
rallels the Gallinago Wilsoni (Scolopax Gallinago, 
Wilson) of America with our European common 
snipe, to which it is very closely allied. 

1853. — The Solitary or Gkeat Snipe 

{Scolopax major). Grande ou double B6cassine of 
the French; Beccacino maggiore of the Italians; 
Mittelschnepfe of the Germans ; Ysnid of the 
Welsh. 

This species, also called the Double Snipe, is a 
rare visitor to our shores, during its autumn pas- 
sage to the south, and also during its spring return 
to the northern regions, where it breeds. It is found 
in Norway, Sweden, and Germany, and visits the 
south of Europe, and the borders of Asia ; it occurs 
in the neighbourhood of the Caucasus. Unlike the 
common snipe, it is a bii-d of heavy and steady flight, 
and ollen becomes so fat in the autumn, as Mr. 
Lloyd experienced near Gothenburg, as to be scarcely 
capable of taking wing. Its flesh is delicious. 

This species is mostly found singly, occasionally in 
pairs ; but in some districts is very abundant, afford- 
ing excellent sport to the " chasseur." Sir H. Davy 
observed these birds breeding in the great marsh pre- 
serve near Hanover, and noticed that the larvae of 
the Tipulae (called Harry Longlegs) constituted the 
principal portion of their food. They breed also in 
Norway and Sweden, as liigh as the range of birch- 
woods extends. The nest resembles that of the com- 
mon snipe. During the pairing season they fly to a 
vast height, and produce a drumming noise as they 
descend by the vibration of their wings. According 
to Mr. Greiff, the male has his playing-ground (or 
lek), where he observed the birds running about, and 
uttering a singular sound resembling a smack of the 
tongue, followed by four or five smacks of a louder 
tone : this habit would lead us to suppose that the 
great snipe is polygamous, like the ruff (Machetes 
pugnax). 

In the great or solitary snipe the tail is composed 
of sixteen feathers ; middle of the first quill whitish : 
top of the head black, divided by a band of yellow- 
ish white ; stripe above the eye yellowish white ; 
upper parts variegated with black and bright rusty, 
the latter colours being disposed longitudinally ; 
under parts whitish rusty ; abdomen and sides 
striped with black bands ; bill inclining to reddish, 
brown at the point ; feet greenish ash. Length 
twelve inches. Females larger than the males. 
Weight from seven to nine ounces. 

1854. — The .Jack Snipe 

{Scolopax Gallinvla). La Petite BScassine and 
Bficassine sourde of the French ; Moorschneppe of 
the Germans ; Judcock, provincial English. 

This species appears to be confined to Europe and 
Northern Asia, and is a periodical winter visitant to 
our island, making its first appearance about the 
second week of September. Early in March it quits 
our latitudes for the polar regions, where it breeds ; 
we believe that there is no authenticated instance of 
its having been known to incubate in any of our 
fens. The jack-snipe frequents oozy bogs and 
marshe." ; when flushed, it uttere no alarm-cry, and 
after a short direct flight drops in some miry spot, 
and is not to be easily roused again. This species is 
the smallest of the genus, being about half the size 
of the common snipe, and seldom exceeding two 
ounces and a quarter in weight ; but its flesh is ex- 
quisite. It is generally found solitary ; and, unlike 
the common snipe, having fixed upon one locality 
as its haunt, it seldom quits it for another, even 
though harassed by the sportsman. It sits very 
close, and will allow itself almost to be trodden upon 
before taking wing. The plumage of this bird is too 
well known to require a detailed description. 

ia55, 185G.— The Woodcock 
{Scolopax Rtisticola). Bfecasse of the French ; 
Beccaccia of the Italians ; Waldschnepfe of the Ger- 
mans ; Cvfiylog of the Welsh. 

Though the woodcock is a native of the northern 
latitudes of Europe and Asia, its migratory range is 
very extensive, extending to Italy, Madeira, Bar- 



bary, Greece, Aleppo, and Sgypt. It has been no> 
ticed in CHshmere and .Japan. It breeds in Russia, 
Finland, Norway, Sweden, Siberia, &-c., and also 
in Switzerland and Great Britain. With respect to 
its breeding in our islands, we might cite numerous 
authentic instances on record, but the fact is too 
well established to require such labour. Wv may 
however refer to Montagu, Bewick, Selby, and Yar- 
rell, and also to Loudon's ' Mag. Nat. Hist." 1837, 
pages 121, 'Sfi, 439. What, however, seems very 
extraordinary is, that woodcocks have been known, 
when apprehensive of immediate danger, to carry 
off in their claws both the young and their eggs. 
(See a paper by Mr. Fairholm in the Magazine 
referred to, p. 3;JJ, and also a paper by a correspond- 
ent, p. 122.) It is stated in the latter that the Blue 
Harrier (Circus cyaneus) also removes the eggs, 
when the nest has been molested. 

The first flights of woodcocks from the north to 
our island generally occur towards the end of Sep- 
tember or the beginning of October ; but these flocks, 
after remaining a short time, wing their way to the 
mere southern regions of Europe, and northern 
Africa, a few stragglers only remaining behind, 
which are atterwards joined by other arrivals during 
the latter part of October, November, and Decem- 
ber. They generally come over in hazy weather with 
little wind, and that blowing Irom the north-east. 
Their favourite haunts are woods, moist thickets, 
close brakes, glens, and similar places, where they re- 
main concealed during the day, but as soon as dark- 
ness sets in they leave these retreats, and scatter 
themselves over moist meadows and swampy open 
grounds, where they search for food, namely, slugs, 
insects, and especially worms, thrusting their bill into 
the earth, and drawing forth their captives. The di- 
gestion of this bird is very rapid. Mr. Selby states 
that he had known one to consume within a single 
night more large earth-worms than half filled a 
garden-pot of considerable size. The nest of the 
woodcock is a loose structure of grass and leaves, in 
a depression among herbage and thickets, near the 
root of a tree or bush. The eggs are usually lour in 
number, of a pale yellowish white, blotched and 
spotted at the larger end with ash grey, and two 
shades of yellowish brown. During the pairing sea- 
son the birds often pursue each other on the ap- 
proach of dusk, circling the wood for an hour or two, 
and uttering a sharp but not very loud whistling 
note ; besides this the male often flies low on heavy 
and flapping wings, keeping up an incessant croak- 
ing, or rather purring noise, not unlike that of the 
spinning-wheel. As the season advances, these 
circling flights and noises are discontinued, " the 
low croaking and occasional whistle being," as a 
writer observes, " peculiar to the period of incuba- 
tion, like that singular noise made by the .snipe in 
spring, as it rapidly descends in the air during its 
circuitous flight over its native morass." 

We need not say that the woodcock is highly ce- 
lebrated for the exquisite flavour of its flesh. When, 
however, the spring change of plumage commences, 
it loses its delicacy, and becomes rank and worthless. 

The return of the woodcock to the regions of the 
north from our latitudes takes place in March, and 
by the middle of April all, save those that remain 
stationary with us, have disappeared. 

The female somewhat exceeds the male in size. 

1857. — ^Thb African Painted Snipe 

{Rhynchwa Capensis). From the genus Scolopax 
are separated the painted snipes of Africa and India, 
which form the genus Rhynchsea ; they are charac- 
terized by the beak being slightly arched at the tip. 
Their habits and manners are those of the snipes 
generally. 

1858, 185D, 1860, 1861.— The Ruff 

{Machetes pufjnax). Female, the Reeve. Le Cora- 
battant and Paon de Mer of the French ; Salsarola 
and Uccello muto of the Italians ; Streisschnepfe 
and Rampfhiihlein of the Germans; yr Ymladdgar 
of the Welsh. 

The genus Machetes was separated from Tringa 
by Cuvier for the reception of this remarkable 
species, celebrated for its combativeness and poly- 
gamous habits, no less than the singular changes of 
plumage which the male undergoes at certain seasons 
of the year. The ruff is generally distributed over 
Europe and the adjacent parts of Asia, and is a 
summer, not winter, visitant to our island, amving 
in April, breeding in our fens, and departing in 
autumn. An occasional straggler remains with us 
during the winter. In Holland it is very abundant. 
In England the fens of Lincolnshire and Cambridge- 
shire are its principal resort. It would appear that 
the males are the first to arrive at their destined 
station ; at all events they keep themselves in dis- 
tinct bands, separate from the females. .\s the 
breeding-time draws near, beautiful long plumes 
round the neck, forming a ruff, and large full ear- 
tufts, rapidly develop. The males now begin to 
hill, as it is termed — that is, they seek some spot a 



Sandpipers.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



23 



little elevated above the surrounding marsn, to 
which, as to a common centre, numbers are gradu- 
ally drawn. Each individual selects its own station 
or little territory, for the possession of which it 
strenuously contends ; the attempt of a rival to 
encroach upon the circle is immediately followed 
by a hard-fought battle, the territory bemg ceded 
by the vanquished to the victor. These battles and 
contests are almost incessant, at least during the 
day ; for at night they all return to the marsh in 
order to feed (in this respect their habits being noc- 
turnal), but in the morning each resumes its station, 
and the contests are again carried on. Here, full of 
animosity against each other, and jealous of each 
other's rights, they await the arrival of the females. 
The arrival on the hill of one of the other sex is the 
signal for a general contest. The scene is now one 
of perpetual warfare, female after female arriving 
at the hill, so that " the theatre of these battles," 
as Selby observes, " soon becomes bare of grass from 
the constant traversing of the combatants." Not 
only have the neck and ear plumes now attained 
their perfection, but the face of the male becomes 
covered with small yellowish papillae, or fleshy ex- 
crescences, instead of the short feathers with which 
it is ordinarily clothed. During the whole of May 
and the early part of June this scene of warfare 
continues with unabated energy. The manner in 
which the ruff fights has much resemblance to that 
of the game cock; the head is lowered, the plumes 
are thrown up iuto a disc, the tail is expanded, and 
each adversary attempts to seize the other with his 
bill, following up his advantage by a blow with the 
wing. The contest is seldom fatal, the vanquished 
being rather wearied out and dispirited by the 
superior strength and determination of his antago- 
nist, than seriously injured. Towards the latter part 
of June this combativeness abates, the papillae on 
the face disappear, and shortly aiterwards the fine 
plumes are moulted off, their place being supplied 
by ordinary feathers. (Fig. 1860.) 

The females, or Reeves, which, as we nave inti- 
mated, only visit the hill at intervals, breed among 
the swamps. The nest consists of little more than 
a slight depression amidst a tuft of grass, rushes, or 
other herbage. The eggs are four in number, and 
closely resemble those of the snipe, but are some- 
what larger. In the group of Grallatorial birds, to 
which the present species belongs, the females usu- 
ally exceed the males in size ; here, however, the 
females are much smaller than the males, and more- 
over undergo no corresponding changes of plumage. 
With respect to the beautiful plumes which for a 
season ornament the ruff, one circumstance is very 
remarkable — namely, the diversity of their colour- 
ing : in no two examples is the colour precisely alike. 
We have seen them pure white ; white elegantly 
barred with black ; reddish brown intermixed with 
black, or barred and spotted ; pure glossy black ; 
grey and black, &c. It appears, moreover, that in 
no individual are these colours the same for any two 
seasons. 

The ruff is among the list of birds whose flesh is 
accounted as a delicacy for the table ; and consi- 
derable profit is made by various fowlers in the fens 
of Lincolnshire, who devote themselves at certain 
seasons of the year to the business of catching them 
and feeding them for sale. The means employed foi 
taking them are chiefly clap-nets, into which they 
are lured by various devices, one of which is a 
stuffed bird of their own species. The seasons for 
taking them are, first, April and May, when the 
males are hilling, and pugnacious in the extreme ; 
and, secondly, September, after the young are fully 
fledged and ready for the autumnal migration, when 
they, with the old birds, pass to more southern lati- 
tudes. Their natural food consists of worms, small 
insects, &c., with which the soft ooze or mud of the 
marsh abounds ; but they are easily reconciled to a 
change of diet, and feed eagerly upon bread and 
milk, boiled wheat, and other articles of a farina- 
ceous quality, upon which they thrive and become 
plump. Captivity, which subdues the spirit of most 
wild creatures, does not abate the pugnacity of the 
full-plumed males taken in the spring. Not only 
will the appearance of a reeve excite them to strife, 
but a bowl of food set before them will produce the 
same etfect, and lead to a tumultuous conflict, which, 
as the arena is very limited, and the weaker have 
no chance of escape, is sometimes known to result 
in fatal consequences. 

Of the variable colour of the neck and ear plumes 
we have already spoken. The rest of the colouring 
may be thus described :— The upper parts of the 
body are varied with a mixture of brown, pale yellow, 
and black ; the sides of the chests and flanks are 
barred with black on a pale yellow giound ; the 
under surface is white. In some individuals these 
tints are much darker than in others. 

The reeve in summer has the upper surface varied 
with glossy black on a cinereous grey ground ; in 
winter the colour becomes more uniform, losing the 
markings of black. 



1862.— The Knot 

{Tringa canutus). Tringa cinerea, Temm. ; Cali- 
dris Islandica, Stephens ; Heccasseau Canut, Temm. ; 
Aberdeen Sandpiper, Pennant ; Red Sandpiper, La- 
tham. 

The birds belonging to the genus Tringa (in- 
cluding Calidris and Pelidna) form a numerous 
assemblage, chiefly tenanting saline marshes and 
the shore of the sea, though some frequent the 
margin of lakes and rivers at a distance from the 
borders of the ocean. They associate in flocks, and 
perform periodical migrations in large bodies. They 
undergo a double annual moult, the summer livery 
differing remarkably from that of the winter ; and 
the young, previous to the first moult, have a very 
different plumage from that of the adults. The food 
consists of worms, Crustacea, and small mollusks, 
obtained on the shores of the ocean during the 
recession of the tide, and as the bill is not so highly 
sensitive nor so well adapted lor plunging deep into 
the mud as in the snipes, they chiefly pick up their 
prev on the surface. 

' The Knot (Mvuibechegrise of the French ; Chiurlo 
of the Italians; Aschgiaus Strandlaufer of the Ger- 
mans ; y Cnut of the ancient British) is a rare bird 
in Germany, France, and the south of Europe ; it 
breeds in the high northern latitudes of Europe and 
America, viz., Iceland, Greenland, North Georgian 
Islands, Melville Peninsula, Hudson's Bay, and the 
higher districts of Sweden and Norway. In autumn 
it visits Holland and the British Islands in great 
numbers, frequenting the shores of the sea, bays, 
inlets, and the mouths of rivers, where oozy grounds 
and muddy flats present an abundance of the minute 
bivalve shell-fish which constitute its principal food. 
The evolutions of the flocks on the wing are very 
interestine: and beautiful. The flesh of this bird is 
in high estimation. About the close of April the 
flocks desert our shores for their arctic breeding- 
places. The Knot lays four eggs on a tuft of grass 
or herbage, without forming any nest ; their colour 
is lisrht yellowish brown, spotted at the larger end 
with grey and reddish. 

In summer the plumage of the knot is rufous, or 
orange-brown varied with black, and with white 
edgings to the wing coverts : in winter it is changed 
to a brownish grey, the wing-coverts margined with 
white ; the under parts pure white, with brown lines 
on the breast, and transverse bars on the flanks, 
rump, and upper tail-coverts, which are white. 
Length ten inches. The upper figure represents 
the knot in summer plumage ; the lower, in winter 
plumage. 

1863. — The Little Sandpiper 

(Tringa minuta). Minute Dunlin, Stephens ; Little 
Stint, Bewick ; Pigmy Sandpiper, Richardson ; 
Becasseau Echasses, Temminck ; Gambeccio of the 
Italians; der Hochbeinige Strandlaufer of the Ger- 
mans ; y Pibidd lleiaf of the Welsh. 

The Stint, or Little Sandpiper, is, with the excep- 
tion of the Tringa Temminckii, the smallest of the 
genus. It visits our shores in autumn, frequenting 
mudbanks and saline marshes, and is often seen in 
the great morasses of Holland ; it is common on the 
shores of the Lake of Geneva ; it is found in India, 
North Africa, Southwestern Asia, and the south of 
Europe, and must also be included among the birds 
of North America. Dr. Richardson saw numbers in 
autumn feeding during the recess of the tide on the 
extensive flats at the mouth of Nelson's and Haye's 
rivers ; and a specimen from Hudson's Bay is now in 
the British Museum. Where this species retires to 
breed is not ascertained ; probably the north-eastern 
partsof Europe, Northern Asia, and the highlatitudes 
of North America off'er it a summer abode. The tran- 
sitions it undergoes in the colouring of its plumage 
are similar to those of the Knot. 

The upper figure is a bird in summer plumage ; 
the lower figure to the left, the same in winter 
plumage ; the lower figure to the right, the young 
of the year. 

1864. — The Dunlin or Purre 

(Tringa variabilis). Tringa Alpina, Fleming; Pe- 
lidna variabilis, Stephens ; Pelidna Cinclus, Cuvier; 
Tringa cinclus (winter plumage), Linn. ; L'Alouette 
de mer i Collier, Cuv. ; Becasseau Brunette ou 
variable, Temminck ; L'Alouette de Mer, Buffon ; 
Tringa ruficollis, Pallas 

The Dunlin is widely spread, being common over 
Europe, a great part of Asia, and North America. 
It is indigenous in Scotland, where it breeds upon 
the shingle at the mouths of rivers, among salt 
marshes near the coast, and in the bogs of the 
upland country. Its nest resembles that of the 
snipe. The eggs, four in number, are of a greenish 
grey spotted with brown. In autumn vast flocks 
from the high northern regions visit the shores of 
our island, where, as they sweep along, they perform 
singular evolutions, every individual, as if by some 
signal of command, simultaneously showing now the 



upper, now the under surface, which glance alter- 
nately, producing a singular and pleasing etfect. 
Sandy bays and oozy shores are their favourite resort ; 
and they run with great celerity and withasprijchtly 
carriage, often uttering a soft piping note while 
busily engaged in search of food, when in motion, 
they are in the constant habit of moving the tail up 
and down. Marine insects, worms, Crustacea, and 
minute shell-fish constitute their diet. On the wing 
they utter a weak scream. Their flight is easy and 
rajjid. Summer Plumage : — Upper parts black, each 
feather being deeply margined with clear reddish 
brown ; lower part of back brownish black ; wing- 
coverts brown margined with grey ; crown of head 
black; chin while; cheeks, throat, and breast black, 
each feather deeply margined with white ; under 
parts black ; flanks streaked with black. In winter 
the general tone of the upper parts of the plumage 
is ashy grey with a tinge of brown ; chin and throat 
white ; breast grey, with the shaft 6f each feather 
brown ; under parts wlfite ; wing-cove.'-ts brown 
margined with grey ; the larger coverts tipped with 
white ; two middle tail-feathei-s brown, the rest 
grey 

1865. — The Marsh Sandpiper 

( Totanus stagnatilis). This species, which is closely 
allied to the Green Sandpiper, the Redshanlis, &c., 
is a native of Northern Europe, where it frequents 
the borders of rivers, lakes, and marshes, whence in 
the autumn it migrates southwards, pursuing its 
course through the eastern provinces to the Medi- 
terranean, but does not frequent the maritime coasts 
of the ocean. It is abundant in Asia, and specimens 
killed in winter plumage have been received, accord- 
ing to Temminck, from the isles of Timor, Sunda, 
and New Guinea. The beak is long, weak, and awl- 
shaped, and its legs are elongated and slender. In 
summer its upper plumage is brown, with irregular 
black dashes ; the under parts white, with brown 
specks on the throat and breast ; tail striped diago- 
nally with brown bands. In winter the upper surface 
is of a nearly uniform ashy grey ; the under parts 
white ; legs olive-green. Length about nine inches. 

1866.— The Willet 

(Catoptrophorus semipalmatxts, Bonap.). Totanus 
semipalraatus, Latham and Wilson. 

This species, separated as the type of a distinct 
genus, in consequence of the partial webs uiiiting 
the three anterior toes, is a native of America, and 
is only of accidental occurrence in Europe. " It 
arrives from the south, on the shores of the Middle 
States, about the 20th of April, and from that time 
to the last of July its loud shrill reiterations of 
pill-wiU-willet resound almost incessantly along the 
marshes. Like the other sandpipers, it breeds on 
the ground among the salt marshes near the coast, 
arranging a rude nest of rushes and coarse grass. 
The eggs are four in number, of greenish or bluish 
tinge blotched with blackish brown. The young 
are covered with grey down, and run about as soon 
as excluded from the shell, under the anxious care 
of the parents, who defend them much in the man- 
ner of our common lapwing, flying round the head 
of the intruder, and uttering a continued cry. When 
wounded, these birds take to the water, without 
hesitation, and swim with considerable facility. 
Small shell-fish, aquatic insects, &c., which the 
muddy shores afford in abundance, constitute their 
food. Summer Plumage :— Upper parts dark olive- 
brown streaked and crossed with waving marks of 
black, and sprinkled with touches of dull yellowish 
white ; wing-coverts light olive-ash, with whitish 
freckles ; primaries white at the base, black for the 
rest of their length ; tail-coverts white barred with 
olive; tail olive barred with black; breast cream- 
white mottled with olive ; under parts white ; legs 
pale lead-colour. Length fifteen inches. In winter 
the plumage above is pale dun streaked with dark 
brown ; the tail white. At this season the willet 
associates in large flocks, and, being accounted 
excellent for the table, aft'ords sport to the gunner. 
The female is generally larger than the male. In 
October and November the flocks leave the coasts 
of the Middle States for a more southern climate. 

Family RECURVIROSTRID^ (AVOCETS). 

The Prince of Canino divides the Avocets and 
Stilt-Plovers from the rest of the Waders, into a dis- 
tinct family group. 

1867, 1868. — The Black-winged Stilt-Plover 
(Himantoprts melanoptenis). Charadrius himan- 
topus. Linn. ; H. rufipes, Bechst. ; H. atroptenis, 
Meyer; I'Echasse and I'Echasse ii manteau noir 
of the French ; Cavaliere grande Italiano of the 
Italians; Schwarzfliigeliche Strandreuter of the 
Germans ; Long-legged Plover and Long-shanks, 
English ; Cwttyn hlrgoes of the Welsh. 

The members of the genus Himantopus are re- 
markable for the extreme length and slenderness of 
the legs ; they are not numerous, but are distributed 





ISM.— Minb aindi'iper. 



180« Willet, 





1874. — Grey PhaUiope. Winter Plumage. 




'y»~ 



1872.— Bill and Foot of Red-necked Plialarope. 




1673.— *tey Phalarope. Summer numage. 




1S73.— Watet-RaU. 



1875.— Coot. 



1880.— Spotted Crake. 







1876.— Moorhen. 




18*7. — Hyaeinthine Gallinale. 



1879 —Virginian Hail. 



No. 54. Vol. II. 



[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



25 



S6 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[PlIAIM-ROPKa. 



in every quarter of the globe. The nresent »peciei 
only occasionally occur* within the liiitish I»iand(, 
and i« equally ncarce and accidental in its visits in 
Holland and the northern parts of Europe. It is 
esjientially a native of the eastern parts of Europe, 
whence it is spread throughout Asia to Japan, in- 
cludiu'.; India and the Indian Islands and also from 
the north to the south of Africa. Accordiusj to the 
Prince of Canino. the two species found in America 
are l)olh distinct, and Mr. Gould has described the 
tpecies found in Australia and Java as different, 
under the title of II. leucocephalus. 

"The Loni;-lei:ged I'lover, as its conformation 
would lead 111 to conclude, is a bird whose most 
congenial habitat i> morasses and the low flat shores 
of lakes, livers, and seas. Hence in the eastern 
portions of Europe, »vhere it is said to arrive from 
Asia in small flocks, it takes up its abode along the 
lakes and amon^ the vast morasses of Hunj^aiy and 
Russia, where, according to M. Temminck, it rears 
its progeny, and where it fearlessly wades in search 
of its food, without much chance of its being carried 
out of its depth ; but should such an occurrence 
happen, or the waves diill it out from the shore, it 
possesses, like many of the true Wading Birds, the 
power of swimming with great ease and lightness. 
Few birds exceed it in the powcis of flight ; its 
wings far exceed the tail, and it passes through 
the air with astonishing rapidity. When on firm 
ground, it appears as if tottering on long and awk- 
ward stilts, but firm ground is not its congenial 
habitat." (Gould, ' Birds of Kurope.') 

In the last part of his ' Manuel ' M. Temminck 
states that this bird makes its nest upon a little 
eminence constructed in the marshes, laying four 
eggs of a tarnished green colour, marked with 
numerous ashy spots, and with moderate and very 
small reddish brown spots. In this species the 
cheeks, neck, and all the lower parts are white, with 
a roseate tinge ; the occiput, back of the neck, and 
upper parts black glossed with green ; the very old 
in»le has the occiput and back of the neck varied 
with white, sometimes quite white : bill black ; iris 
crimson ; legs vermilion. Length of head and body 
fourteen inches. 

1869. — The Mexic.w Stilt-Plover 

{Hinumtopus Mexicamis). This species arrives on 
the sea-coast of New Jersey in small flocks about the 
2.">th of April; these subdivide into smaller parties, 
and settle together among the salt marshes, at some 
distance inland, where the sheet of water is broken 
into numerous shallow pools, through which they 
can wade in every direction, and which are not 
usually oveiflowed by the tides during summer. 
They feed upon minute shell-fish, insects, Crustacea, 
&c. In the vicinity of these pools, six or eight 
pairs make their nests close together, forming them 
of grass, on which they deposit their eggs, but 
during the progress of incubation they add fresh 
materials, as twi^, seaweed, and the roots of grass, 
80 as to elevate the platform previously constructed, 
which often weighs between two and three pounds. 
The eggs, four in number, are of a dark yellowish 
clay colour, thickly blotched with black. On the 
approach of an intruder, the males, who are roaming 
through the neighlwuring mareh, rise in the air, 
flying with their long legs extended behind them, 
and keep up a perpetual yelping note of click, 
click, click, then alighting, they stand on half-bent 
trembling legs, with drooping quivering wings, 
uttering a purring sound, and seeming as if they 
balanced themselves with difiiculty. This is done to 
draw off attention from the nests to themselves, and 
the avocet practises the same "ruse." Both also 
occasionally swim when they lose their depth in 
wading ; and when wounded, they attempt to escape 
by diving, which, however, is not veiy expertly 
managed. They depart early in September, visiting 
Jamaica and the warmer parts of the American 
coast. In this species the bill is slightly curved 
upwards (not so much as that of the avocet^ and 
tapers to a fine point ; the outer toe is connected to 
the middle by a broad membrane, as also in the 
European species, which has the bill straight, slender 
and channelled. Back of the head and neck, back, 
and wings, black glossed with green ; the remainder 
of the plumage white ; legs fine pale carmine ; bill 
black. 

1870.— The Palmated Stilt-Plover 
{Cladorbynchua peclornlis). The genus Cladorhyn- 
chus differs from Himantopus chiefly in the cir- 
cumstance of all the fore-toes being connected toge- 
ther by partial webs. This species, which was 
difcovered by Mr. Gould in Southern and Western 
Australia and Roltnest Island, resembles the com- 
mon stilt-plover in its general habits. The body is 
white ; the breast being crossed bv a band of chest- 
nut bordered anteriorly with black ; wings and 
centre of abdomen black. In some specimens, pre- 
sumed females, the pectoral band was greyish brown 
instead of chestnut, and in others the pectoral band 



was apparently disappearing; from which it is to be 
inferred that this mark exists only during the breed- 
ing season. 

1871. — Thk Avockt 

(Hecvrrirostra Avocettd). In the genus Recurvi- 
rostra the bill is long, slender, tapering, depressed, 
and bending upwards at the tip, which is very flex- 
ible ; legs long and slender, and the three anterior 
toes united for nearly the whole of their length by 
a scolloped membrane. 

The avocet is widely diffused through temperate 
Europe. It is found in Siberia, on the shores of the 
Caspian, about the .«ialt lakes of Tartary, and also 
in tgypt, and other parts of Africa. In our island 
these birds are not uncommon along the eastern 
coast, south of the Humber, and breed in the fenny 
parts of Lincolnshire, and also in Uomney Marsh in 
Kent. Tliey are very rare in the north of England 
and Scotland. They abound in Holland. During 
the winter the avocet assembles in small flocks, fre- 
quenting muddy flat shores and the mouths of rivei-s, 
feeding upon marine insects, minute Crustacea, and 
shell-fish, in quest of which it wades in the shallows, 
only swimming when unexpectedly out of its depth. 
Its slender, recurved, elastic beak, resembling whale- 
bone, by no means organized as a feeler for plung- 
ing into the mud, enables it to scoop up from the 
surface of the slimy ooze the minute insects or 
worms on which it feeds: during Ibis operation it 
appears as if it were incessantly beating the mud 
with its beak. Its actions are all quick and lively, 
and its flight is rapid and vigorous. During the 
summer the avocets are scattered in pairs over the 
fens and saline marshes, and select a dry spot on 
which to breed. The nest is merely a slight depres- 
sion, sheltered by such herbage as the morass affords. 
The eggs are greenish, spotted with black. When 
disturbed during incubation, or while guarding their 
down-covered young, they fly round the intruder in 
circles, uttering without intermission their peculiar 
cry twit-ltcit, twit-twit, and, like the stilt-plover, will 
feign lameness, and crouch on trembling limbs, in 
order to decoy the object of their fear to a distance. 
The avocet is a beautiful bird ; its general plumage 
is white, with the exception of the head, and back of 
the neck, the middle wing-coverts, and greater quill- 
feathers, which are black ; bill black ; legs bluish 
grey. The toes, which are webbed, give the bird 
superior advantage in traversing the soft ooze in 
search of food. Length eighteen inches. 

Family PHALAROPID^E (PIIALAROPES). 

The family Phalaropidao is established by the Prince 
of Canino for the Phalaropes and their immediate 
allies, Lobipes and Holopodius — birds endowed with 
great powers of swimming, and often seen upon the 
surface of the ocean, even amidst the roughest 
waves. The plumage is thick and closely set, and the 
toes, besides being united together at the base by a 
web, are bordered by acontinuation of the membrane, 
so as to make the feet efficient paddles. Their moult 
is double ; their habitat the arctic and temperate 
latitudes. They fly with strength and swiftness. 

1872, 1873, 1874.— The Grey Phalarope 

( Phnlarojnis platyrhytichus). Ph. lobatus, Flem. and 
Latham ; Ph. griseus, Stephens ; Phalaropus rul'es- 
cens, Briss ; Red Phalarope, Latham ; Plain Phala- 
rope, ' Arctic Zoology ;' Grey Phalarope, Selby ; Ph. 
fulicarius, Bonap., Wil.son. 

The bill in the genus Phalaropus is rather long, 
weak, and slender ; flattened, and wide at tiie base, 
furrowed to the point. The tarsi are slender, and 
compressed laterally. The three anterior toes are 
united up to the firet joint, and bordered with fes- 
tooned membranes dentelated on the edges. Hind- 
toeswithoutamembrane. Wings moderate. Fig. 1872 
represents the Bill and Foot of Phalaropus hyperbo- 
reus (Lobipes hyperboreus, Cuv.). 

The grey phalarope is a native of the regions 
European, Asiatic, and American, within the Arctic 
circle, whence in autumn it migrates southwards, 
visiting temperate Europe, the British Island, the 
great lakes of Asia, and the Caspian Sea. Its food 
coftsists of aquatic insects, and especially those 
which live on the surface of the water, saline or 
fresh, in quest of which it swims with great address, 
and may be watched while engaged in this occupa- 
tion displaying a thousand graceful attitudes and 
manoeuvres. It not only frequents the shore, and 
the bays, creeks, and inlets of our island during the 
winter, but also mill-dams, large pools, and even 
farm-yard ponds, readily allowing itself to be ap- 
proached, unsuspicious of danger. On the land the 
phalarope is less active and alert than the sand- 
pipers (Tringae), with which it was associated by 
Linnffus. Major Sabine, in his memoir on the 
' Birds of Greenland," states, that a number of these 
phalaropes were seen on the 10th of June, in the 
G8th degree of latitude (where the species breeds), 
at a distance of four thousand miles from land, 
swimming about in the midst of icebergs ; and, re- 



ferring to this account, M. Temminck observes that 
he cannot see why this bird, with such habits, and 
such a form as it presents, should be associated with 
the snipes and sandpipers (Chevaliers). The eggs 
of this species are greenish ash, spotted and dotted 
with black. 

Summer Plumage (Fig. 1873) • — Head, nape, back, 
scapulars, and other coverts of the tail blackish 
brown ; all the feathers of these parts are surrounded 
by a wide red-orange border; a yellowish band 
passes above the eyes ; wing-covcrls blackish, ter- 
minated with white; a transverse white band on the 
wing; rump white, spotted with black ; Iront of the 
neck, breast, belly, abdomen, and lower tail-coverts 
brick-red. 

\yinter Plumage (Fig. 1874) :— Top of the head, 
occiput, and nape pure ash-colour ; a large spot of 
ashy-black on the orifice of the ears; two bands of 
the same colour take their origin towards the eyes, 
and pass ujwn the occiput, where they form a single 
band, which descends the whole length of the nape ; 
lateral parts of the breast, back, scapulars, and rump 
very pure bluish ash ; blackish occupies the centre 
of all these feathere, and is directed along the shafts; 
the longest of the scapulare terminated with white ; 
a transvei'sal white band on the wing; tail-feathers 
brown, bordered with ash-colour; front, sides of the 
neck, middle of the breast, and all the other lower 
parts pure white ; bill yellowish red at its base, 
brown townrds the point ; iris reddish yellow ; feet " 
greenish ash. Lengih above eight inches. 

Family RALLID^ (RAILS and COOTS). 

This family consists of several groups of birds, 
mostly of aquatic or semi-aquatic habits, Irom the 
diving and swimming coot to the terrestrial land- 
rail, and exhibiting certain modifications of form 
according to the nature of the locality tenanted, 
viz., lake, morass, or meadow. In general the con- 
tour of the body is narrow and compressed. The 
Rallidae have to thread their way through beds of 
the thick-set stems of reeds, bulrushes, and other 
aquatic plants, among which they seek shelter and 
concealnient,ur, asin the case of the landrail, through 
the tall grass of the meadow, and that so rapidly 
and noiselessly, that the field seems traversed by 
magic : hent-e they elude pursuit with great ease, 
and can seldom be forced to take wing. In all, the 
toes are long and spreading, giving them the facility 
of passing over soil ooze, or even the flat leaves of 
the water-lily, which float in close array on the 
surface of the water. The beak is generally strong, 
often remarkably so ; but in this respect there is 
much variation. 

1873.i-THE Coot 

(_Fulica atra). Foulque, Macroule, or Morrelle of 
the French ; Schvvarzes Wasserhuhn of the Ger- 
mans ; Meir Koet of the Netherlanders ; Folaga and 
Folacra of the Italians ; Jar ddwfr foel of the 
Welsh. 

In the genus Fulica the bill is strong, straight, 
subconical, and compressed, and the base of the 
upper mandible is carried upon the forehead in the 
form of a broad expanded plate. The feet are lai^ge, 
and the toes are margined by lobated membranes. 
Plumage full and deep. 

The coot is very generally spread over temperate 
Europe, and is particularly abundant in Holland. 
In our island it is common, frequenting large sheets 
of water, especially such as are surrounded with a 
broad belt of reeds and tall luxuriant aquatic 
plants, forming a dense covert for concealment. It 
swims and dives with the utmost address, nor is it 
inactive on land, and may be often seen early in the 
morning in humid low meadows adjacent to the 
water, wandering in search of slugs, worms, and 
insects, which, with aquatic larvai, snails, and the 
fry of fishes, &c., constitute its food. When winter 
sets in severely, and the inland waters are I'rozen, 
it journeys to the more southern districts of our 
island, visiting saline marshes, arms and inlets of 
the sea, and the mouths of rivers, as the South- 
ampton water, where numbers congregate during 
the inclement season, and may be seen crowding the 
mud flats. The nest of the coot is a huge mass of 
grass, flags, and other herbage, sometimes situated 
among the reeds near the water's edge, at other 
times absolutely within the margin of the water, 
and rising above its surlace to the height of eight or 
ten inches. The author of the ' British Oology ' 
describes these nests as clumsy, but amazingly soud 
and compact. "So firm," he says, "are some of 
them, that whilst up to my knees in water they 
afforded me a seat sufficiently strong to support my 
weight." From the nature of the materials com- 
posing the nest, conjoined with its situation, it not 
unfrequently happens that it is torn from its moor- 
ings by floods and carried down the current ; and 
instances have been known of such occurrences 
taking place, the female continuing to sit upon her 
eggs, which remained uninjured. 

The eggs, from seven to ten in number, are of a 



Rails.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



27 



greenish white, thickly spotted with brown. The 
youns; are clothed with black down, tipped with 
grev,~and immediately take to the water, under the 
protection of their parents till able to shift for them- 
selves. The coot is not roused to take wing without 
difficulty, and then iiies low and heavily, with the 
legs hangini; down, or it just skims above the surface 
ot^the water, which it strikes with its feet by way of 
aiding its progress. It can, however, undertake a 
long-continued flight, as is evident from its semi- 
migratory habits, and Mr. Selby states that he has 
more than once seen this bird flying at a consider- 
able elevation, with a very unexpected degree of 
strength and speed. 

Dr. Von Siebold and M. Briiger saw the coot in 
Japan. 

The description is as follows : — Bill pale rose-red ; 
irides scarlet ; frontal plate largest in the male 
milk-white ; head and neck deep greyish black ; 
under parts greyish black, with a slight bluish tinge ; 
upper parts slaty black ; naked part Of the tibias 
orange; tarsi greenish grey tinged with yellow. 

1876.— The MooRHE^f 

(GallimilacJdoroptis). Poule d'eau of the French; 
Gallinella of the Italians ; Wasserhuhn and Braune 
Meerhuhn of the Germans ; Dvvfriar of the Welsh ; 
Common Gallinule and water-hen, English. 

In Gallinule the beak is short and straight, the 
cutting edges of the upper mandible falling over 
those of the lower ; a naked frontal plate ; toes long 
and simple. 

The moorhen, or water-hen, is dispersed over the 
greater part of Europe, Asia, Africa, Japan, and the 
Indian Archipelago, if indeed the species be identi- 
cal, which is a question not settled. The Prince of 
Canino considers the two American species (G. ga- 
leata and G. Martinica) to be both distinct (as he 
does also the American coot, Fulica Americana) 
from their European representatives. 

In our island the water-hen is abundant where se- 
cluded sheets of water, ponds, meres, or pools, bor- 
dered by beds of reeds and rushes, overhung by old 
willows and other trees, aff'ord it an asylum. Though 
its feet are not fringed, it swims very gracefully, and 
dives with singular address, both in order to escape 
danger and to obtain food. In the former case it 
often remains immersed amidst the shelter of 
the herbage, with little more than its beak above 
the water, watching till the danger is past. On the 
land it runs with great rapidity, and when suddenly 
surprised on the bank — where, as we have often seen, 
it delights to bask in flocks of ten or twenty — it 
dashes half running, half flying into the water, and 
either dives, or skims half flying over the surface to 
the covert of the reed-bed, and instantly disappears. 
While walking on the grass, it has a habit of flirt- 
ing up its short tail, so as to disi)lay the white under- 
coverts; and in all its actions is smart, quick, and 
animated. 

According to Mr. Gould, the female is clothed in 
a dark rich plumage, and has the base of the bill and 
the frontal plate of a bright crimson red, tipped with 
fine yellow; while the male, contrary to the general 
rule, has the upper surface more olive than the fe- 
male, and the bill also is less richly tinted. The fe- 
male, though more richly clad, is one-fifth less than 
her mate. The food of this species, in addition to 
aquaticlarvae, worms, &c., consists of aquatic weeds, 
and grain, as wheat and barley. The water-hen selects 
a retired spot in which to breed, and conceals the 
nest amidst the sedges, reeds, and flags of the water- 
side : sometimes it is placed upon a low, thickly-fo- 
liaged, floating branch, or the stump of an old pol- 
lard : it is formed of matted flags and rushes. The 
eges are of a yellowish white, marbled with tints of 
brown, and vary from five to nine in number. On 
leaving her nest, the female always covers up her 
effgs, principally with a view to their concealment 
from the rat or the snake. The young are at first 
covered with black hairy down, and immediately 
take to the water. In five or six weeks they are 
fully fledged, and able to provide for themselves. 
Numbers, however, fall a prey tothe rat, the weasel, 
the hav. k. and the pike. Base of the bill and frontal 
plate red ; head, throat, neck, and under parts 
blackish grey ; ridge of the wing and under tail- 
coverts while: upper parts of the body dark olive 
green ; legs dusky green, with a garter of red above 
the tarsal joint. 

1877.— The Hyacinthine Gallinule 

(Porphijrio ht/acinl/iinus). Poule Sidtane of the 
French ; Polio Sultano, Savi ; Gallo-fagiano of the 
Catanians. 

The genus Porphyrio is characterized by having 
the bill very strong, thick, compressed, and almost 
88 high as long; the frontal plate extending from 
the base of the beak is very considerable ; the tarsi 
are strong, the toes of great length, without any de- 
veloped membranous edging. 

These birds, observes M. Tcmminck, live nearly 
Vol. II. 



like the water-hens, to which they are the most closely 
approximated ; like them, their habitual haunts are 
the fresh waters : but the immense rice-fields 
(rizieres) and marshes of the south equally serve 
them for an a.sylum and retreat. More inclined by 
their appetite to cereal grains and plants than to 
aquatic herbs, the porphyries frequent the land 
more than do the water-hens : they swim with grace, 
and run with elegance and swiltness on the land or 
over the plants which grow in the water. Their 
body is not so compressed nor so slender as that of 
the water-hens; their formidable bill composed of 
a very hard substance, and nearly without a nasal 
fossa, which is covered by a membrane, serves them 
as an instrument for cracking the husks of grains and 
breaking the hardest stems ; their feet which thev 
use to seize their food and convey it to their bill, 
are provided with very long toes, easily retractile, 
and with nails which bend also with some facility, 
giving them the power of prehension. A bril- 
liant plumage, where blue or a turquoise hue pre- 
dominates, clothes the greatest number of the known 
species. 

, The Hyacinthine gallinule is rather widely spread, 
though it is not a native of northern or western 
Europe, but of the southern and eastern provinces, 
the marshes of which are its places of constant re- 
sort. " Its range is extended," says Mr. Gould, " over 
a great portion of Africa to the south, and as far as 
the mountains of the Himalaya to the east. In Eu- 
rope it is especially abundant in the Grecian Archi- 
pelago, the Levant, and the Ionian Islands : it is less 
common in Dalmatia and Sardinia. The Southern 
provinces of Hungary and Russia and the borders of 
the Caspian Sea may also be enumerated among its 
European localities." M. Timminck states that it 
is to be seen in many cities of Sicily (where, accord- 
ing to M. Cantraine, it is very common in the neigh- 
bourhood of Lentini) ; that it is not known in Dal- 
matia nor Calabria, and is rare in Sardinia ; and that 
it is known in Catania, under the name of Gallo- 
fagiano. 

Beautiful as this bird is, and active and graceful as 
are its movements, it is by no means intelligent; 
indeed it may be said to be stupid, since, as we are 
assured, when hard pressed it buries its head in the 
mud as if for safety. It breeds in the marshes, 
much in the manner of the common water-hen, 
giving preference to the sedgy parts of the morass 
and partially inundated rice-fields, where it con- 
structs a nest of aquatic shrubs, and lays three or 
four white and nearly round eggs. It is probably 
this species which was held in such higii esteem by 
the Romans, and kept in temples and palaces for the 
sake of its beauty. Pliny notices its habit of soaking 
its food in water and then raising it to its beak by 
means of its claws : " pede veluti manu." 

Bill fine red ; legs and feet fleshy red ; irides lake 
red ; cheeks, throat, sides of the neck, and chest 
turquoise blue ; the remainder of the plumage deep 
indigo blue, with the edges of the greater and 
lesser wing-coverts more biilliant ; under tail-coverts 
white. Length eighteen inches. 

1878.— The Water-Rail 

(Ralliis aquaticus). Rale d"eau of the French ; 
Merla d'acqua of the Italians ; Wasser Ralle of the 
Germans ; Cwtair of the Welsh. 

In the genus Rallus the bill is lengthened and 
slender, and very slightly arched. The water-rail 
is distributed over Europe, and some parts of Asia, 
having been seen by Dr. Von Siebold in Japan. In 
our island it is not uncommon, but is very shy and 
recluse, tenanting secluded marshes and ponds, where 
the thickest reed-beds screen it from observation, 
through which, from the compressed form of its body, 
it glides with the utmost facility and address : it 
thus easily eludes the pursuit of the dog, winding 
about till it gains some deep hole or other recess, 
and can therefore seldom be flushed. It also swims 
and dives with remarkable ease, and if pushed hard 
instantly disappears, rising at a distance and press- 
ing forward to the reed-bed. 

While moving undisturbed in search of food, the 
water-rail, like the moorhen, has a habii of flirting 
up its short tail so as to show the cream-white 
under-coverfs. In the winter, this bird, if it docs 
not positively migrate, resorts to the sides of large 
streams and rivers, where various insects, worms, &c., 
are always to be procured. The nest of this species 
is made of coarse grasses, and concealed amidst 
the thickest herbage in the most inaccessible part of 
its haunt. The eggs are from six to eight in number, 
of a yellowish white colour marked with spots of 
brown. When first excluded, the young are covered 
with black down, and follow their parents, swim- 
ming with equal address. 

Bill brosvn at the tip, orange-red at the base ; 
throat pearl grey : sides of the neck, the breast, and 
under surface bluish or slate grey; flanks greyish 
black barred with white and cream yellow ; under 
tail-coverts cream white; the whole of the upper 
surface yellowish brown, the centre of each feather 



being velvet black. Legs brown flesh-colour; iris 
orange. Length twelve inches. 

1879. — The Virginian Rail 

(Rallus Virginianus). The Prince of Canino enu- 
merates three species of water-rail as natives of 
North America, of which he parallels the Virginian 
water-rail with our British species. 

This species, says Wilson, is frequently seen along 
the borders of salt-marshes, and breeds there, as 
well as among the meadows bordering the larger 
rivers; it spreads over the interior of the country as 
far wes.t as the Ohio, and is common in the Darrens 
of Kentucky early in May. In its habits it is mi- 
gratory, never wintering in the Northern or Middle 
states, which it leaves on the setting in of the frost ; 
but many linger in the low wooded marshes of the 
Southern states throughout the winter. With respect 
to its general manners the Virginian rail closely 
agrees with our water-rail, winding through the 
dense reed or cane beds, and swimming and diving 
with the same address. 

The nest is composed of grass and rushes ; the 
eggs are from six to ten in number, of a pale cream 
colour, spotted with reddish and pale purple. Its 
food consists of worms, the larvte of insects, and 
small shelled snails. In colour this species much 
resembles the European water-rail, but is smaller, tmd 
has none of the slate or lead colour on the breast 
which marks the latter, and its toes are compara- 
tively shorter. Length ten inches. 

1880.— The Spotted Crake 

{Crex Porzand). The genus Crex, as characterized 
by Selby, has the bill shorter than the head, sub- 
cultrated and compressed, with a lateral furrow on 
each side of the upper mandible, and in which 
the nostrils arc pierced. Wings armed with a 
spine. The recent fashion for making genera has 
led to the division of this group, which contains 
four European species, into the following generic 
divisions: Porzana of Vieillot; Zapornia, Leach, 
Alecthelia, Swainson, being synonyms ; and Or- 
tygometra of Ray, of which the common corn-crake 
is the sole European representative. 

The crakes are birds of shy and recluse habits, 
living concealed in the thick herbage of the mea- 
dows or marshes; they have a thin compressed form 
of body : run with a skulking gait and great rapidity, 
seldom taking to wing unless when suddenly sur- 
prised. Their flight is laboured. Insects, worms, 
vegetables, and seeds constitute their diet. 

The spotted crake, Poule d'eau Maronette of the 
French, is one of our earliest birds of passage, arriv- 
ing in March and departing in October. On the 
continent of Europe it is widely spread everywhere 
haunting the margins of pools and rivulets over- 
grown with reeds, sedges, and thick herbage. It ex- 
tends its range to Western Asia and Africa. 

The nest of this species is built amongst the sedges 
and reeds of the pool or marsh, and the foundation is 
frequently under water ; it is composed of a large 
mass of aquatic plants interlaced, with a hollow at 
the top, neatly formed and comfortably lined. The 
eggs are eight or ten in number, of a yelloWish grey 
tinged with pink, and spotted with dark and pale 
brown. Worms, aquatic insects, grain, and various 
seeds constitute the food of the spotted crake, and 
in autumn it becomes loaded with fat, and is ac- 
counted excellent lor the table. 

Bill lemon-yellow, red at the base ; forehead, eye- 
streak, and throat deep smoke-grey ; crown of the 
head brown, the feathers edged with yellowi-h brown, 
and speckled with white ; breast and under parts 
olive-green, tinged with grey, with transverse dashes 
I of white surrounded by a streak of black; upper 
parts black, the feathers being deeply edged with 
olive-green, and marbled with markings of white 
surrounded by a list of black ; under tail-coverts 
olive-green ; legs wax-yellow. 

1881.— The Corn-Crake 

{Crex pratensis). Rale de Genet, ou Roi desCailles 
of the French; Re di Quag'ie of the Italians; 
Weissen Knarrer of the Germans : Regen yr yd of 
the Welsh ; Landrail, Corn-drake, Daker-hen, Eng- 
lish. 

The Corn-crake is spread over the whole conti- 
nent of Europe, and is very abundant in Holland. 
It visits the southern districts of our island in April, 
but seldom appears in the north before the beginning 
of May. In some localities it greatly abounds ; in 
others it is little known. In the rich meadow-lands 
of Cheshire the monotonous cry of this bird, like 
craltc-cralie-cralte, may be heard during May and 
1 June resounding on every side ; now close at hand, 
as if the bird were not a yard distant ; now far off; 
while the voices of others in different parts are 
unremittingly exerted. This note, which is the call 
of the male to his mate, and which ceases on the 
commencement of incubation, may be imitated by 
drawing the finger or a stick across the teeth of a 
comb. So shy and cunning is the bird, that it is 





isas.— HmiI oTHiininl Scmmrr. 






IMI.— Cora-Ctake. 




1S88. — African Jacana. 




lM4.«Hflrnc4 SorMmar. 



1887. — Crested Screamer. 



28 




I89T. — Crowned Crane. 



1894.— Demoiselle. 




1899.— Demoiaelle. 




1898.— Bill of Heron. 




1900.— Pectinited Ctawof Nighl-Heron. 




1899.— Head of Heron. 




c\ ■mm 



1896.— Stanley Crane. 



29 



80 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Jacanas. 



(cldom to be leen ; and iinlen by means of a dot; 
acciistomrtl to »iich work, it M almoitt impractible 
to force it to lake wing; it iieeras to eluile pursuit an 
if by auMnc.ami is here and there, threadin:: it* way 
through the lonp puii, before it* pursuer can imasine 
it has even left the ipot from which its call had tii-st 
resounded. Its swiftneM and dexterity are indeed 
almost incredible. The corn-crake breeds on the 
Ktound. makini; a nest of dried prass in some de- 
prctaion, the female laying from eight to twelve 
egg*; they are of a yellowish white, covered with 
dull ru»t-coloure<l spots, and in size nearly equal to 
thoM of a partridge. Tlie youne, when first ex- 
cluded, are covered with a blackish liairy down, and 
follow the parents ; and in six weeks are able to fly. 
Wonnt, insects, vegetables, and seeds constitute the 
food of this bird ; it is very fond of grasshoppers. 
lUfOuthward migration takes place in October, when 
it panes over to the Continent, and continues its 
irradual progress. The flesh of the corn-crake is in 
high esteem as a delicacy. The description is ns 
follows:— A larpe ash-coloured eyebrow, prolonged 
upon the sides of the head ; all the feathers of the 
upper parts blackish brown in the middle, bordered 
laterally with ash-colour, and terminated with red- 
dish; the long feathers which extend on the quills 
entirely bordered by a large band of olive-reddish ; 
coverts of the wings of a rusty red ; quills reddish 
externally ; throat, belly, and abdomen white ; breast 
olive-a-sh ; sides reddish, striped with white ; upper 
mandible brown, lower whitish : iris reddish brown ; 
eyebrows flesh-colour ; feet flesh-colour or reddish 
brown. Length nine inches and a half. 

Family PALAMEDEID^ (.JACANAS, 
SCREAMERS, &c.). 

This family, established, we believe, by the Prince 
of Canino, comprehends the .lacanas. so remarkable 
for their long legs, toes, and spine-like claws, and 
the Screamers or Cariamas of South America ; all 
birds inhabiting morasses and swampy grounds, 
which they traverse in quest of food. 

1882. — The African Jacana 

(Parra Afrieana). In the genus Parra the bill is 
moderate and compressed, and of a straight and 
slender figure ; the legs and toes are long and 
straight, or, slightly recurved, of enormous length ; 
wings armed with a spur. This genus is spread over 
South America. India and its islands, Australia and 
Africa, China, &c. In contour and habits the spe- 
cies are analogous to our moorhen, frequenting lakes, 
sheets of water, ponds, and morasses, and where 
undisturbed are far from being shy. "The number 
of these birds (says Mr. Swainson) on the lakes of 
Brazil, the elegance of their movements, and their 
fearlessness of man, excite an interest in the traveller 
who journeys through regions ornamented alone by 
nature. They are very light birds, and their long 
toes spreading over a wide surface enable them to 
walk over the floating leaves of aquatic plants with 
ns much facility as if they were on land. In such 
Mtuations their appearance is really delusive, for 
their pressure being sufficient to sink the surround- 
ing leaf just below the surface, the birds actually 
appear to walk upon the water." 

The African .Jacana is a n.ative of Abyssinia, 
Mozambique, the Western Coast, and South Africa: 
it is of a deep cinnamon colour above ; the crown of 
the head is naked ; the throat is white : the breast 
fulvous ; the neck and quills black. The spur on 
the wing is a mere rudiment. 

1883. — The Common Jacana 

. Parra Jacana). This species is spread over the 
hotter regions of South America. Brazil, Guiana, &c. 
Its general colour is black, with the back and wing- 
coverts rufous; the first quill-feathers are green; 
'.he spurs on the wing are large and sharp ; at the 
base of the beak are singular appendages of leathery 
bkin. 

The Chinese Jacana, Parra sinensis, is a native of 
India, is characterized by a long and graceful tail, 
and the quill-feathers are terminated with slender 
appendages like little narrow plumes proceeding 
from the tip of each shaft. This is a most elegant 
oird, and is not uncommon in museums. It has 
been received from the Himalayan range. 

ms4. — The Horned Screamer 

(Palameaai camuta'). Kamichi in Guiana ; Anhima 
in Brazil ; Camouche of the people of Cayenne. 

In the genus Palamedea the bill is shorter than 
the head, convex, slightly vaulted, bent at the point, 
. and covered at the base with small bristles; nostrils 
oval, open; wings spurred. Fig. 188.5 represents 
the Head of the horned screamer, or kamichi. It 
is amidst the vast swamps and savannahs of Cayenne, 
Guiana, and Surinam, teeming with animated beings, 
that the homed screamer is to be found, and where 
its loud voice is to be heard at intervals above the 
incessant din of mingled cries, the croak of legions 
of frog!", and the hum of insect armies, which fill 



these districts with unceasing and discordant clamour. 
In size the horned screamer almost equals a turkey, 
and its voice is extraordinary and startling. Ac- 
cording to Marcgrave it consists of the syllables 
rifhou-vyhott. uttered loud, clear, and shrill. Nor is 
it only for its voice that the screamer is remarkable, 
but also for the weapons of oft'ence and defence with 
which it is armed. On the shoulder (as it is termed) 
of each wing are two large, sharp, and hard spurs, 
projecting directly forwards, and constituting for- 
midable instruments. From the top of the head, 
in the present species, rises a slender pointed 
horn, three or four inches in length, and gently 
curved forwards. The use of this appendage to 
the head is not clear, but there can be no possi- 
bility of mistaking the use of the shoulder-spurs. 
Snakes of various size, all rapacious and all to be 
dreaded, abound in the haunts frequented by the 
Screamer, and these formidable weaiions enable the 
bird to defend itself and its young against the assaults 
of such enemies. If not attacked, the screamer 
ofTers molestation neither to reptiles nor to birds ; its 
habits are shy, its manners gentle, and it lives in 
pairs united lor life. . 

The kamichi wades in quest of the leaves and 
seeds of aquatic plants, on which it feeds, and for 
which its muscular gizzard is adapted, though some 
have asserted that reptiles constitute its food. The 
flight of the horned screamer, as might be expected 
from the length and expanse of its wings, is strong 
and sweeping; on the ground it walks with its head 
elevated, and with an air of pride, insomuch that 
many of the older writers regarded it as an aquatic 
kind of eagle. It is said to build its nest on the 
ground at the foot of a tree, and to lay two eggs, 
like those of the goose. The general colour of this 
species is glossy blackish brown, the under parts 
white. The head and upper part of the neck are 
covered with downy feathers of a blackish colour 
interspersed with white. 

1886, 1887. — The Crested Screamer 

(Palamcdea chavarid). Parra Chavaria, Linn. ; 
Chauna Chavaria, Illiger; the Chaia or Chaja of 
Azara. 

This species is a recluse bird haunting the banks 
of the rivers and swamps of Paraguay and Brazil. 
It lives singly or in pairs, but is sometimes seen in 
flocks. It does not swim, but wades in quest of 
aquatic plants, on which it feeds. Azara observes 
that he has seen Chajas brought up from the nest in 
various houses in the country, and that they were as 
domesticated as the poultry. They are very cou- 
rageous, and will drive oft' a vulture. The same 
writer also informs us that the chaja perches on the 
loftiest trees ; on the ground it walks with the body 
horizontal, the head and neck raised vertically, the 
beak being rather kept down. Its cry is loud and 
shrill, and uttered not only during the day, but the 
night also: that of the male is represented by the 
word chaja; that of the female, c/!«/W( ,■ and they 
respond to each other's call. The wings are armed 
with double spurs; but, except in seU'-delence, it is 
gentle and quiet. The chaja flies well, and often 
wheels around in vast circles till out of sight. 

August is the breeding-season of this species ; the 
female lays two eggs, and the young, while yet 
covered with down, follow their parents in the same 
manner as do the young of the plover and lapwing. 
The nest is spacious, and is constructed oi' twigs and 
sticks, and placed, according to some, on bushes and 
low trees surrounded by water; or, according to 
other.s, among the reeds and tall herbage which 
grow in the midst of the morass. 

As in the former species, the limbs are naked 
above the joint, and are covered with hexagonal 
scales ; the middle toe is united to the outermost by 
a web extending as far as the first joint; the claws 
are Jong, sharp, and scooped out bene,ith. The 
head is small and crested ; the eyes encircled by a 
naked skin, of a blood-red colour. The legs and 
foes are rose-pink ; the claws black ; head and 
upper part of the neck downy, the l.-xtter encircled 
with a black collar ; general plumage lead-colour 
and blackish, with a spot of white at the bend of the 
wing, and another at the base of some of the greater 
quills. Length three inches. 

We are not aware that living specimens of either 
species have been ever brought to our island, but 
we do not apprehend that there would be much 
difficulty in the accomplishment of their safe trans- 
portation. Fig. 188G represents an Adult Chaja, 
accompanied by its young, just hatched, and still 
clad in down. 

1888.— The ^ariama 
{Dicholophus cristalim. 111.). Palamedea cristata, 
Gmelin : Saria of the Guaranis ; Seriema of the 
native Brazilians. 

It is perhaps between the Screamers and the 
Trumpeter (Psophia) and the Cranes that we must 
place this remarkable bird, which inhabits the vast 
solitary mountain plains .surrounded by forests which 



extend over so large a portion of Brazil, and where 
its loud sonorous voice breaks the silence of the 
desert. It runs with astonishing swiUness, trusting 
to its speed, and not its wings, for safety. Shy, re- 
cluse, and wary, the 9ariama stalks along on the 
watch against surprise ; its eye instantly marks the 
distant intruder, and it prepares for flight. Those 
who have had the best opportunities of observing 
these birds state that their capture is a work of 
great difficulty ; they are huntea on horseback, and, 
like the ostrich, so rapid is their course, with many 
turns and windings, that it is not till alter a sharp 
pursuit that the bird, wearied out, crouches or takes 
to a bush or tree ; and till this happens, the horse- 
man in vain seeks to use his lifle or lasso. The 
Variama is said to feed on reptiles, insects, and 
perhaps seeds. It flies badly, and rarely takes wine. 
Wild as this bird is in its' natural condition, it la 
easily domesticated, and will live sociably with the 
other tenants of the poultry-yard. In this state they 
will eat little pieces of meat, but are said to refuse 
maize, though it is probable that other kinds of 
grain may not be disagreeable to them. When 
thus tamed, they will walk about the hamlet or 
village where they have been bi ought up, and even 
return after taking short trips in the fields, like the 
poultry. The flesh is described as very good food ; 
It IS, however, seldom eaten by the Brazilians. 

Its nest is composed of dry sticks and branches, 
covered with cow-ilung, and placed upon a low or 
a moderately high tree. The eggs aie generally 
two in number, and white. 

The 9ariama stands very high on the legs, and the 
hind-toe is seated high on the tarsus; the space 
round the eye is naked and bluish ; the head is 
crested with light feathers, and long loosely-barbed 
feathers cover the neck ; the upper eyelid is fringed 
with long lashes. The general colour above is pale 
umber brown, with fine zigzag markings of a darker 
tint ; wing-feathers blackish, finely barred with 
white lines dotted with blackish ; under parts 
whitish ; bill coral red ; legs orange ; iris yellow. 
Length thirty-two inches. For an account of the 
anatomy of this bird see 'Proceeds. Zool. Soc.,' 
1836, p. 27. 

Family GRUID^ (CRANES). 

In this family the bill is moderate, the legs are long, 
the wings rounded, with the secondaries elongated 
into drooping plumes ; in most if not every species 
the trachea exhibits some peculiarity, and usually 
is much convoluted before entering the chest. 
Instead of deriving their sole subsistence from lakes 
And morasses, the members of this family live in a 
great measure on vegetable food, and frequent plains, 
newly-sown lands, and cultivated districts. 

188D. — The Gold-breasted Trumpeter, or 
Agama 

(Psnphia crepitans). This beautiful bird, which 
equals a large fowl in bulk, with a much longer 
neck, and standing much higher on the limbs, is a 
native of the foiests of tropical America, and the 
wild uplands, never visiting fens or the borders of 
lakes or rivei-s. It is gregarious, associating in 
considerable flocks, and walks and runs with great 
ease and celerity, but seldom takes wing, and then 
only rises a few feet above the surface of the ground. 
It trusts to its speed of limb for safety. In captivity 
its docility and attachment are remarkable. Ac- 
cording to M. Monoucour, it " is not only tamed 
easily, but becomes attached to its benefactor with 
all the fondness and fidelity of the dog ; and of this 
disposition it shows the most unequivocal proois. 
When bred up in the house, it loads its master with 
caresses, and lollows his motions ; and if it conceives 
a dislike to persons on account of their foibiddiiig 
figure, their offensive smell, or of injuries received, 
it will pursue them sometimes to a considerable 
distance, biting their legs, and testifying every mark 
of displeasure. It obeys the voice of its ni.isler, 
and even answers to the call of all those to whom it 
bears no grudge. It is fond of caresses, and offers 
its head and neck to be stroked; and, if once ac- 
customed to these familiaritief, it becomes trouble- 
some, and will not be satisfied without continual 
fondling. It makes its appearance as often as its 
master sits down to t.ible, and begins with driving out 
the dogs and cats, and taking possession of the room ; 
for it is so obstinate and bold, that it never yields, and 
often, after a tough battle, can put a middle-sized 
dog to flight. It avoids the bites of its antagonist 
by rising in the air, and retaliates with violent blows 
with its bill and nails, aimed chiefly at the eyes ; and 
after it gains the superiority, it pursues the victory 
with the utmost rancour, and, if not parted, will 
destroy the fugitive. By its intercouise with man, 
its instinct becomes moulded like that of the dog ; 
and we are assured that it can be trained to tend a 
flock of sheep. It even shows a degree of jealousv 
of its rivals ; for, when at table, it bites fiercely the 
naked legs of the negroes and other domestics who 
come near its master." 



I 



C RAN lis.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



31 



This remarkable bird h?»s obtained the name of 
Trumpeter from a hollow internal sound which it 
makes without opening its bill, and which, accord- 
ins; to Pallas, results from a peculiar construction 
of the windpipe, which at first is as thick as a swan's 
(|uill, but becomes more slender upon entering the 
<'.hest, when it gives off two membranous seraicir- 
<;ular sacs, or air-bags, of which that on the right is 
the most extensive, and divided into three or four 
cells. The hollow internal drumming, preceded by 
a wild cry, is evidently produced from the vibra- 
tion of the air forced into these air-bags from the 
lungs, by the action of the muscles of the chest and 
back, and during the utterance of the sound the 
cliest is seen to heave as in birds while singing. 
We are here reminded of the drumming of the 
emeu. The trumpeter is said to scratch a hollow 
in the ground at the root of a tree for the reception 
of the eggs, which are^from ten to sixteen in num- 
ber, and of a light green colour. The down remains 
long on the young. 

The head, except a circle round the eyes, and the 
whole of the neck, are covered with black velvety 
feathers ; on the breast they become large and are 
rounded, their edges being of a metallic glossy purple 
and green ; the back is covered with long silky plumes 
of a delicate grey, which hang gracefully over the 
wings, which latter are black, as are also the tail and 
under surface ; the feathers of the tail are soft and 
short ; the feathers of the under parts are loose and 
hairy ; bill black ; tarsi pale yellowish olive. 

1890, 1891, 1892.— The Common Crane 
(Gnis cineren). Grue of the French ; Grua of the 
Italians ; Kranich of the Germans ; Goran of the 
Welsh. 

In the genus Grus the bill is long, straight, and 
compressed laterally, the upper mandible having a 
furrow on each side, in which are placed the 
nostrils ; wings moderate, the secondaries nearest 
the body elongated into drooping plumes. Fig. 1893 
represents the Bill of the common Crane. The 
trachea runs a convoluted course within an extensive 
cavity in the substance of the deep keel of the 
breast-bone, whence it emerges to enter the chest. 
The gizzard is strong and muscular. 

The Crane is spread over a great portion of 
Europe, Asia, and Africa, and from the earliest 
times has been noticed at a bird of migratory habits. 
Associated in large flocks, they journey northwards 
in spring to their accustomed breeding-places, and 
return southward? in autumn to India, Egypt, and 
other parts of Africa. According to Latham the 
crane visits Sweden, Russia, Siberia, and the whole 
of northern Asia. Dr. Von Siebold noticed it in 
Japan. Formerly it was a regular visitor to our 
island, where it bred before cultivation had deprived 
the species of congenial localities by the enclosing 
of waste tracts of land and the drainage of marshes. 
We hear of statutes imposing a fine upon those who 
should presume to take away the eggs of a crane or 
bustard. Willughby says, " Cranes come often to 
lis in England, and in the fen counties of Lincoln- 
shire and Cambridgeshire there are great flocks of 
them." It appears that no less than two hundred 
and four were served up at the feast of Archbishop 
Nevil in the reign of Edward the Fourth. At 
present the crane is very rarely seen within our 
shores, and almost as rarely in Holland. 

The aerial voyages of the crane are performed at 
a high elevation in the air, and though the loud 
cries of the passing flock may reach the ear, the 
birds themselves are beyond the limits of our sight. 
These flights often take place during the night-time. 
The crane makes its nest among rushes, reeds, and 
the long herbage of swampy tracts, and sometimes 
on the walls of isolated ruins. The eggs are two in 
number, of a pale dull bluish green, blotched with 
brown. 

Wide open lands newly sown are often visited by 
this bird, for the sake of the grain, to which it is 
very partial, but it also haunts morasses, feeding 
upon shelled molhisks, worms, frogs, and other rep- 
tiles. The general colour of the crane is dark grej', 
the top of the head being red and n»ked, on the 
back of the head and front of the neck the grey 
approaches black ; many of the secondaries form 
long loose drooping plumes ; bill greenish black ; 
iris red brown ; legs black. Length from the bill 
to the end of the tail three feet eight or ten inches. 

1894, 1895.— The Demoiselle 

( Anthropoules Viiyo). Ardea Virgo, Linnaeus. 
The demoi.«e!le, or Numidian crane is remarkable 
lor grace, symmetry of form, and elegance of de- 
portment. It is widely spread in Africa, and, like 
the cranes in general, is migratory in its habits. It 
extends along the Mediterranean, and is abundant in 
the neighbourhood of Tripoli ; it visits Egypt during 
the inundation ; and appears about Constantinople 
in October, on its return from the southern coasts of 
the Black and Caspian seas. It has been observed 
at Lake Baikal, and has been killed in NepSl ; on 



the west of Africa it extends from Egypt to Guinea, 
and is found near the Cape of Good Hope. The 
food of this beautiful bird consists in a great measure 
of grain and seeds, to which it adds insects, worms, 
&c. It bears our climate well, and has bred in 
France ; one of the young ones, reared in the mena- 
gerie of Versailles, lived there for twenty-four years. 
The demoiselle stands about three feet six inches 
in height. The top of the head is crey ; behind 
each eye springs a tuft of white feathers, passing 
backwards to the occiput, where they form a dronji- 
ing crest of soft loose plumes, which undulate with 
every movement ; the sides of the head, the neck, 
and a long flowing plume depending from the 
breast, blackish : general tint delicate slate grey ; 
the secondary quill -feathers, elongated into slender 
plumes, which fall over the quills and tail ; bill 
yellowish. 

189G.— The Stanley Cbanb 

(Anthropoides Stanleyamis). Anthropoi'des para- 
disaeus, Bechstein. 

In beauty, gracefulness, easy elegance of move- 
ment, this species equals the demoiselle, to which 
indeed it is closely allied. It runs and bounds with 
singular velocity, and sweeps along with expanded 
wings in chace of insects, which it takes as they flit 
by, and to which it is very partial. In captivity it 
is gentle and familiar. It is a native of India, 
perhaps also of Africa. The full soft feathers of the 
head make it appear as if tumid. The general 
plumage is bluish grey, passing into brownish black 
on the points of the tail-feathers and the long 
pendent flowing wing-plumes, which touch the 
ground. This species somewhat excels the demoi- 
selle in stature, and the hind-toe is comparatively 
larger. 

1897.— The Crowned Crane ' 

(Balearica Pavonina). This species, and one from 
South Africa, the Kaffir Crowned Crane CBalearica 
Regulorum), said to be held sacred by the Kaffirs, 
are the only two species at present known of the 
genus Balearica (' Proceedings of the Zoological 
Society,' 1833, p. 118), which is now separated from 
Anthropoides. Till recently these two species were 
confounded together by most naturalists. 

The crowned crane is a native of Northern and 
Western Africa. The Romans are supposed to have 
received them from the Balearic Islands, now Ma- 
jorca and Minorca. In Guinea and at Cape Verd, 
as well as in the adjacent countries, they are very 
common frequenting swampy places, and subsist- 
ing, like the crane, partly on grains and other vege- 
tables, partly on insects, mollusks, small fish, &c. 
At Cape Verd these birds are said to be so familiar 
as to come into poultry-yards, and feed in company 
with the domestic inmates. Their gait is slow and 
stately, but expanding their wings, and assisted by 
the wind, they scud along with great velocity. 
Their flight is loi>y, and capable of being long 
sustained. Their voice is loud, trumpet-like, and 
hoarse. 

In captivity the crowned crane becomes very 
tame and gentle ; like the rest of the family to 
which it belongs, it generally reposes resting on one 
leg, with its neck bent, and its body maintained 
almost horizontally. It often, however, assumes a 
very different attitude, standing perpendicularly 
upright, with its long neck on the full stretch; in 
this position it remains for some short space of time 
gazing steadfastly at the spectator, and_ then break- 
ing out into a hoarse kind of chuckle. 

The crowned crane stands about four feet in 
height; the front of the head is covered with short 
black velvety feathers ; from the occiput there rises 
a remarkable crest of slender bristle-like filaments, 
diverging from each other, with a spiral twist, and 
four or five inches in length. Their colour is 
yellowish ; they are fringed with minute black : 
barbs. The cheeks are naked, the upper portion of 
the denuded space being white, the more exten- 
sive space below red ; there is a small wattle on the 
throat. The sreneral plumage is bluish slate-colour ; 
the feathers of the fore-part of the chest are elon- 
gated ; the primary quills and the tail are black ; 
the secondary <)uill-feathers, which are long and 
slender, are of a rich brown, and the wing-coverts 
pure white. 

In the Kaffir crowned crane (B. Regulorum) the 
naked cheeks are white, with a roseate upper margin, 
and the throat-wattle is laree. Both species, to- 
gether with the two preceding, are living in the 
Gardens of the Zoological Society. 

Family ARDEID^ (HERONS). 

This family is verv extensive, embracing not only 
the true Herons, Egrets, and Bitterns, but also the 
Storks and Boatbills, and therefore consists of 
several minor groups, varying in certain details, 
though agreeing in general characteristics. They 
frequent, as a rule, the margins of rivers, lakes, or 
marshes, feeding on fish, reptiles, and even small 



mammalia. Essentially formed for wading, the 
legs are very long, and the neck and bill proportion 
ate. In most the beak is very sharp-pointed, often 
with the upper mandible sulcated as in the heron. 
The toes are generally elongated, the hind-toe is 
applied fairly to the ground, and the claw of the 
middle toe in the herons, egrets, and bitterns is 
pectinated. Though in general they build and 
breed in societies, they always wander alone in 
search of iood, and after the breeding-season lead 
a solitary existence. Many are adorned with 
elegant jilumes and crests. Their wings are ample ; 
their flight buoyant. Figs. 1898 and 1899 represent 
the Bill and Head of the Common Heron. Fig. 
1900, the Pectinated Claw of the Night-Heron. 

1901, 1902.— The Common Heron 
(Ardea cinerea). Heron of the French ; IJeccapesce, 
Airone. and Garza of the Italians ; Reyger and 
Rheier of the Germans; Cryr glas of the Welsh ; 
Hern, Heronshaw, Hernseugh, English ; Hearon- 
sewys (Herons), in Household-Book of the fifth Earl 
of Northumberland. 

In the true Herons the beak is long, straight, 
compressed, and sharp, with a delicate cere at the 
base, and the upper mandible sulcated. Lores 
naked. Legs long, naked high above the tarsal 
joint. Wings ample and rounded ; middle claw 
pectinated. See our account of the Goatsucker 
(p. 286, vol. i.), in which there is similar pectina- 
tion. The common heron is spread over the greater 
part of the world, inhabiting Asia and Africa, as 
well as Europe. In America it is represented by 
an allied species, Ardea Herodias. In our island 
and in temperate climes the heron is stationary, 
but is migratory in colder latitudes. Except during 
the breeding-season, this fine bird is solitary, haunt- 
ing rivers, sheets of water, and preserves of fish, 
where it often commits considerable damage. 
Recluse and suspicious, the Heron sits roosting 
during a great part of the day on his accustomed 
branch in seme remote and dense part of the wood ; 
or, where marshes are extensive, he may be observed 
in the middle of the morass, standing on one leg, 
immoveable as a statue, and so stationed as to 
command a wide prospect around. If roused by an 
intruder from this spot of repose, he spreads his 
wings, mounts into the air, and sails away for some 
distant and more secluded retreat. To come upon 
him by surprise is very difficult, it is early in the 
morning, with the grey of the dawn, after sunset in 
the evening, and especially during moonlight, that 
the heron takes his prey, excepting, indeed, when 
the calls of his nestlings demand his continual 
exertions. He may then be seen in lonely and 
secluded nooks, standing in the water, with glisten- 
ing eye, and head drawn back ready for the fatal 
stroke ; patiently does he maintain his fixed attitude ; 
presently a fish passes; sudden as lightning, and 
with unerring precision, arrow-like he launches his 
beak, and up he soars bearing the captive to his 
nest. It is not generally known that the heron will 
swim. The following fact is related by P. Neill, 
Esq., of Canonmills, near Edinburgh. This gentle- 
man had a pair of these beautiful birds tame, and, 
after some interesting particulars, he thus con- 
tinues: — "A large old willow-tree had fallen down 
into the pond, and at the extremity, which is partly 
sunk in the sludge and continues to vegetate, water- 
hens breed. The old cock heron swims out to the 
nest, and takes the young if he can ; he has to swim 
ten or twelve feet where the water is between two 
and three feet deep. His motion through the water 
is slow, but his carriage is stately ; I have .seen him 
fell a rat by one blow on the back of the bead, 
when the rat was munching at his dish of fish." 
(Selby's ' Ornithology.') The heron, as we have said, 
builds, like the rook, in societies, choosing the 
highest trees for the purpose ; and the breeding- 
places are termed heronries. In modern days these 
I are much more limited in number than formerly, 
■ when the heron was protected for the pleasure of 
the knight and noble, who flew at it their best 
falcons, and regarded it as a choice delicacy in their 
banquets. Fig. 1903 is a Heronry, with the surround- 
ing wild scenery, on the river Findhorn, Morayshire, 
and described in the 'Penny Alagazine,' for June 6, 
1840, p. 220. 

About a mile from the town of Reading, in a low 
meadow traversed by a rapid brook flowing into the 
Kennet, is a heronry, which we have often visited, 
and near it a rookery, but neither the herons nor 
rooks seem to interfere with each other, or offer 
each other any injury or molestation. The nests 
are flat and built of sticks. It is amusing to see the 
herons sailing to and from their city, on wide-spread 
wings, and wheeling and hovering around their 
brooding-mates or young; while a loud clanking 
chatter, uttered by numbers without intermission, 
and heard at a considerable distance, resounds from 
the crowded nests, half hidden amidst the foliage of 
the tall trees, which for years they have colonized. 
The eggs of the heron are five in number, of a dulJ 





1*M.— Ilrrm. 





] •og.—Niijht-IJeisn. 



IfOS-^Heronjy on the river Fimlboni} Morayshiie. 







1904.— Bittern. 



/^ 




IM(.— Tofted Umbo. 




1907.— Night-Herom. 





1909.— Bill orTnfttd Umber. 



1904.— Bittern. 



32 



p) 




1913.— Stork. 



1910.— Stork. 



No. 55, 



[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



83 



34 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Herons 



bluish green. The young remain five or six weeks 
in the nest, and the old birds unceasinely supply 
their voracious appetite with fish, and defend them 
with ijreat resolution. 

The colouring of the heron in full plumage, 
which is not attained till the third year, is as fol- 
lows: — Long, loose, black feathers adorn the back 
of the head, and similar plumes of a lustrous white 
depend from the lower part of the neck ; the equally 
elongated and subulate scapulars are of a silvery ash. 
Forehead, neck, middle of the belly, border of the 
wings, and thighs pure white ; occiput, sides of the 
breast, and flanks deep black. On the front of the 
neck are large longitudinal black and ash spots. 
Back and wings verj' pure bluish-ash ; bill deep yel- 
low ; iris yellow; naked skin of the eye bluish 
purple ; feet brown, but of a lively red towards the 
feathered part. Length three feet and upwards. 

190t, 1905.— The BiTrsRN 

(Bottmnu stellarit). Butor of the French ; Uccello 
lepre and Trombutto of the Italians; Kohrdommel 
of the Germans. 

The Bittern is found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, 
and was once common in England, when, in the 
palmy days of falconry, it afforded one of the " great 
flights," and was protected by severe penalties, but 
is now comparatively scarce, though a few are said 
still to breed in the fenny counties. Its flesh, rank 
as we should deem it, was accounted a great de- 
licacy. 

The bittern frequents wild morasses and the oozy 
banks of large rivers, where extensive tracts over- 
grown with flags, reeds, and bulrushes afford it an 
asylum. In the midst of these it crouches during 
the day, and is with difficulty roused to take wing, 
when it flies slowly away to a distant haunt, uttering 
from time to time a resounding cry, different from 
the " boom," which is peculiar to the breeding sea- 
son, which has given rise to some of its provincial 
names, as Mire-drum and BuU-of-the-Bog : this 
noise has been erroneously supposed to be made by 
the bird while plunging his bill into the mud, and is 
first heard in February or March, while — 

•* A* vet the trembling year is unconliniied. 
And winter oft Kt eve resumes the breexe, 
Chills Uie pale mom, uid bids his driving sleets 
TVform the dsy deliffhtlest— so that scarce 
The Bittern know-s his time, with bill en(ruird 
To shake ttie sounding marsh ; or from the shore 
The Plovers when to scatter o'er the heath 
And sing their wild notes to the listening waste." 

Tfiomsoa. 

During the early part of spring the bittern 
"booms" from the midst of the marsh at intervals 
throughout the day, and then on the approach of 
dusk he soars spirally to a vast height, uttering his 
hollow boom, which sounds not unlike the cieep- 
toned roar of a bull. 

The nest of this bird is a rude structure, and 
placed not on trees, but by itself in the solitude of 
the morass, on some slight elevation. The eggs, 
five in number, are of a pale green. The bittern, 
when wounded, defends itself with great determina- 
tion, throwing itself on its back like a bird of prey, 
and launching its formidable beak with great force 
against its enemy, generally aiming at the eye : 
consequently it is not to be approached without 
caution. In olden days, when the hawk had brought 
the bittern down, it was the falconer's first care to 
plunge the bill of the latter into the ground, lest the 
nawk should be impaled. 

In size the bittern is rather less than the heron. 
The plumage is beautifully varied with spots, bars, 
and dashes of black on a fine reddish yellow ground. 
The feathers of the head and neck are long and 
loose, and capable of being thrown forward. Bill 
brown above, greenish below ; iris yellow ; legs pale 
green ; middle claw pectinated. Frogs, field-mice, 
newts, and fish, with the buds of the water-lily and 
other aquatic plants, constitute the food of the 
bittern. 

1906, 1907.— Thk Night-Hebon 

{Nycticorax Ewropaut). Ardea Nycticorax, Linn. ; 
Bihoreaii and Roupeau of the French ; Scarza 
Nitticora of the Italians ; der Nacht-Raiher of the 
Germans. In its young state, the Spotted and Gar- 
denian Heron of Latham ; Night-raven. 

This species is very widely spread over Asia, 
Africa, and Southern Europe ; but in America is 
represented by the Quarbird (N. Americanus 
Bonap.), till lately confounded with it. In our 
islands the night-heron is a bird of rare and acci- 
dental occurrence ; it has been killed at Frogmore, 
near iVindsor, and in other places : in Spain it is 
common, and in the adjacent countries. In many 
respects it resembles the common heron in its man- 
ners, breeding, like that bird, in society, on the top- 
most branches of trees, and roosting during the day 
in tne recesses of woods adjacent to wild swamps 
and rivers, which it visits on the approach of twi- 
light in quest of prey. Daring the flight of these 
birds to their fishing-stations, and throughout the 
night, they continually utter a hoarse hollow croak, 



ominous of death, in the ears of superstition, as we 
believe is also the boom of the bittern, at which 
dread roar the credulous wayfarer of the night has 
stood aghast with terror. 

Wilson, speaking of the American species, or 
Qua-bird, which visits Philadelphia in great num- 
bers, breeding in the tall trees of the vast cedar- 
swamps, says that " on entering the swamp the noise 
of the old and of the young would almost induce one 
to suppose that two or three hundred Indians were 
choking or throttling each other. The instant an 
intruder is discovered, the whole rise in the air in 
silence, and remove to the tops of the trees in another 
part of the woods, while parties of from eight to ten 
make occasional circuits over the spot to see what 
is going on." While flying from their roost to the 
marshes, about the beginning of evening twilight, he 
says, they utter "in a hoarse and hollow tone the 
word Qua," whence the name Qua-bird. 

In the night-heron the legs are not so long in 
proportion, nor is the space above the tarsal joint 
naked for so great an extent, as in the common 
heron. The middle and outer toe are connected at 
the base by a membrane, and the middle claw is 
pectinated. 

The adult plumage is as follows : — Top of the 
head, back, and scapulars black with bluish and 
greenish reflexions; three white very narrow 
feathers, six or seven inches in length, taking their 
origin at the back of the head, just above the nape, 
and descending backwards ; lower part of the back, 
wings, and tail clear ash-colour ; forehead, space 
above the eyes, throat, front of the neck, and lower 

f)arts white ; bill black, yellowish at the base of the 
ower mandible ; iris red ; feet yellowish green. 
Length rather more than one foot eight inches. 

In the young of the year the three long feathers 
from the back of the head are wanting, and the 
general plumage is of a brown tinge, dashed and 
variegated with rufous : the lower parts being 
clouded with brown, white, and ash-colour. 

1908.— The Tufted Umber 

(Scopus Umbretta) ; Ombrette of the French. In 
this genus the bill deviates from that of the true 
herons, in having the point decidedly deflected, the 
tip of the upper mandible being abruptly hooked, 
and that of the lower truncated. (See Fig. 1909, the 
Bill of the Tufted Umber.) The nostrils are linear ; 
the wings long ; the tail short and square ; the legs 
moderate. All the toes are united at the base by a 
membrane. 

Of this form, but one species, the tufled umber, is 
known; a bird extensively spread throughout 
Africa, and characterized by a peculiarly soft and 
lax plumage, the back of the head in the male being 
furnished with a full puffy crest. The general 
colour of this bird is deep umber brown, whence 
its name ; the crest being of a much paler tint. 
Size, that of a crow. Habits not recorded. 

1910.— The Boatbill 

(Cancroma cochleared). Le Savacou of the French. 
Notwithstanding the strange form which the beak 
assumes in the present genus, the Boatbill is closely 
allied to the herons, and has in a great degree the 
same habits and manners ; its beak, however, instead 
of being straight, compressed, and pointed, is of an 
oval form, much depressed, with a ridge along the 
top of the upper mandible, which somewhat re- 
sembles an inverted spoon, and to which the lower 
mandible, of nearly the same figure, is applied, rim 
in contact with rim. It is in fact the bill of a heron, 
shortened, and flattened out laterally. The nostrils 
are situated in a furrow along each side of the ridge. 
The toes are three before and one behind. Legs 
moderate. 

The Boatbill is a native of Guiana, Brazil, and 
other parts of South America, and of recluse habits, 
frequenting rivers, wide swamps, and marshes, 
where it patiently watches, from its perch on some 
branch overhanging the water, the movements of the 
finny race, and precipitates itself, somewhat in the 
manner of the kingfisher, on such as approach the 
surfacu. It has been thought to live on crabs also, 
whence the name Cancroma, but this is by no 
means ascertained. Leach, indeed, in his ' Zoolo- 
gical Miscellany,' 1815, says, that it feeds on fishes, 
worms, and Crustacea, in quest of which it is con- 
tinually traversing the borders of the sea. Lesson, 
in his ' Manuel,' 1828, says that the boatbill perches 
on trees by the side of rivers, where it feeds not 
on crabs, as its name indicates, but on fish : he 
speaks of it as inhabiting the flooded savannahs of 
South America, and as being especially common 
in Guiana. Some years since an individual of this 
species was living in Exeter 'Change ; it had the 
lorn melancholy aspect of the herons, and was fed 
principally on fish. Of its mode of incubation and 
the minor details of its history, nothing appears to 
be known. 

In the male, from the top of the head arises a 
long plume of jet-black narrow feathers, pointed. 



and falling down upon the back, producing a beau- 
tiful efi'ect. The throat is bare : the forehead and 
neck, of which latter the feathers are elongated and 
form a sort of mane very characteristic of the 
herons, are greyish white. The back, also orna- 
mented with long feathers, is of a fine grey, some- 
times with a rusty tinge ; the tail is white ; the 
sides are black, the middle of the under surface 
deep reddish brown. Bill blackish ; legs brown. 
Claw of middle toe pectinated. In the temale the 
feathers of the top of the head are black, without 
being elongated into a pendent crest. In size this 
bird somewhat exceeds a common duck, but, with 
the exception of the beak, exhibits the general con- 
tour of the herons. 

1911— 1915.— The Stohk 
(Ciconia alba). In the genus Ciconia the bill is 
long, straight, robust, subconic, unfurrowed, and 
pointed, with the culmen, or upper ridge, sul)- 
cultrated. The nostrils are linear, and pierced in 
the horny substance of the upper mandible near the 
base. The legs are long, and naked high above the 
tarsal joint. The hind toe is short, the middle toe 
long, and joined to the outer one by a large mem- 
brane, and by a smaller to the inner toe. The 
claws are short, blunt, and entire. Fig. 1916 re- 
presents the Bill of the Stork. The birds of this 
genus are gregarious and migratory; they mostly 
prefer flat marshy countries, aad feed upon frogs and 
other reptiles, mice, moles, worms, insects, and eels. 
Their appetite is, in fact, extremely voracious. In 
the countries frequented by them they are held in 
high regard for the sake of their utility, and are ac- 
cordingly protected. 

The range of the Common or White Stork 
(Cicogne blanche, Buffon ; Weisser Storch, Meyer) 
is very extensive, being everywhere a bird of migra- 
tory habits. The vast flocks that have visited 
Europe, and sojourned there during the summer, 
collect together, and wing their way for the warmer 

Sarts of Asia and Africa, there to pass the winter, 
ielon stales, that when in Abyssinia, during the 
month of August, a great flight of storks came from 
the north, and when they reached the commence 
ment of the Mediterranean Sea, they there made 
many circuitous turns, and then dispersed into 
smaller companies ; and Dr. Shaw informs us that 
when he was journeying o^er Mount Carmel he saw 
the annual migration of those which had quitted 
Egypt, and that each of the flocks was half a mile 
in breadth, and occupied three hours in passing 
over. Their course is usually unattended with any 
noise, excepting that of their wings; but when any- 
thing occurs to startle them or engage their at- 
tention, they make an extraordinary clattering 
noise, which may be heard to a great distance, by 
striking the mandibles quickly and forcibly together. 

The stork breeds in Turkey, Syria, Greece, and 
Egypt, but it also visits Europe, and is common in 
Holland and Germany, extending its migrations to 
Sweden and Northern Russia. In Seville, it is 
abundant ; but, according to the Prince of Canino, 
is only an accidental visitor near Rome. 

When we consider how abundant the stork is in 
Holland, and that it extends its migrations to more 
northern latitudes, it is somewhat surprising that 
individuals should so rarely visit our marshes — per- 
haps it was foi-merly more common than at present, 
and its rarity may be attributed partly to the 
drainage of our great morasses and partly to the 
persecution which it would assuredly bring down 
upon itself by such an untoward visit, whereas on 
the Continent it has for ages experienced the utmost 
toleration. In Holland and Germany the stork 
approaches without fear the dwellings of man, and 
is treated as a welcome guest ; annually returning 
to the steeple or the turret, or to the false chimney 
erected by the Hollander for its nest, and which has 
been the nursery of many a generation, 

The stump of a decayed tree is sometimes chosen 
as the site of the nest ; but wherever it takes up its 
abode it is there respected. In Spain, says Dr. 
Southey, the storks build their brood-nests on the 
towers of churches, and are held sacred; and Dillon 
states that in Seville almost every tower in the city 
is peopled with them, and that they annually return 
to the same nests. One of the causes of their being 
venerated is their destroying all the vermin on the 
tops of the houses. At Bagdad, Niebuhr says, 
hundreds of these birds are to be seen there on every 
house, wall, and tree, quite tame. We are told by 
Fryer that they are so exceedingly numerous among 
the ruins of Persepolis, that the summit of almost 
every pillar of these magnificent monuments of 
antiquity contains a storks nest (Fig. 1917). 

It would appear that the Turks hold this bird in 
more than usual esteem ; their name for it is Hadji 
Lug-lug : the former word, which is the honorary 
title of Pilgrim, it owes to its migrations and appa- 
rent attachment to their sacred edifices; the latter 
is a word formed in imitation of the noise which the 
bird makes. The regard of the Turks Is so far 



Storks.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



35 



understood and acknowledged by the stork, that in 
cities of mixed population it rarely builds its nest 
on any other than a Turkish edifice. The Rev. J. 
Hartley, in his ' Researches in Greece and the Levant,' 
remarks, " The Greeks have carried their antipathy 
to the Turks to such a pitch that they have de- 
stroyed all the storks in the country : on inquiring 
the reason, I was informed, ' The stork is a Turkish 
bird ; it never used to build its nest on the house of 
a Greek, but always on that of a Turk.'" 

Where convenient buildings are not to be found, 
the stork will construct its nest on the flat shelf-like 
masses of branches and foliage presented by the fir 
or cedar. The nest is made of sticks and twigs, 
and is a solid compact mass, lasting for many years ; 
it is lined with reeds, grasses, and moss. The eggs 
are from three to five in number, and of a creamy 
white ; in size equalling those of the goose. Incu- 
bation continues for a month, at the expiration of 
which period the young are hatched, and assiduously 
attended to by the parents until they are fully 
feathered and able to depend upon their own ex- 
ertions. 

Elevated on its stilt-like legs, the stork walks 
slowly and with measured steps, traversing the marsh 
in quest of frogs and other reptiles, small mam- 
malia, and even the young of various water-fowl, 
on which it preys. It clears the streets of carrion 
and ofFal. Previously to their autumnal return 
to the south, which occurs towards the close of 
August or at the beginning of September, the 
storks of a district assemble together, till at length 
vast flocks are gradually collected ; all is bustle and 
commotion ; they make short excursions, and keep 
up a continual clattering of their bills, under the 
excitement of the contemplated voyage through the 
upper regions of the air. On some favourable 
night they mount up into the sky, and sail away 
towards their destined haven, returning to their old 
familiar haunts and a hearty welcome in March or 
April. 

The stork stands nearly four feet high in its ordi- 
nary attitude, and measures three feet six inches in 
length from bill to tail. The eyes are surrounded 
by a small black naked space, which does not join 
the bill. The general plumage is pure white, except- 
ing the quills, greater wing-coverts, and scapularies, 
which are black. Bill and legs red-iris brown. 

During repose the stork sleeps like the crane, 
always standing balanced on one leg, with the neck 
bent, and the bill resting on the breast. 

1918.— The Jabiru 
{Mycteria Americana). The gigantic storks of this 
genus, of which one is American, one Asiatic, and 
one Australian, are characterised by the greatest 
part of the head and neck being destitute of fea- 
thers; the bill, which appears to be somewhat 
turned up at the extremity, owing rather to the 
curvature of the lower mandible than of the upper, 
is large, elongated, sharp-edged, and strong ; the 
upper mandible is nearly if not quite straight and 
trigonal. Length from the forehead to the tip, up- 
wards of thirteen inches. Nostrils basal and linear. 
Anterior toes united at the base by a membrane. 
Habits closely resembling those of the stork. 

The Jabiru inhabits the borders of lakes and 
morasses in South America, where it feeds upon 
reptiles, fish, small quadrupeds, &c. It is of gi- 
gantic stature, standing between four and five feet 
high, and is endowed with great power in the head 
and neck, its long sharp bill being a formidable 
spear-like weapon. The general colour of the 
plumage of this species is white ; the occiput is 
feathered, but the rest of the head and the neck 
are naked, the skin being black, with a tinge of red 
about the lower part of the latter. 

1919, 1920. — The Adjutant, or Ahgala 
{Lcpioptilos Argala). Ciconia Argala, Vigors. 
In the genus Leptoptilos are placed three gigantic 
species of stork, distinguished at once by the vast 
sue and volume of the beak, with a proportionate 
enlargement of skull and muscularity of neck, 
which, together with the head, is bare of feathers, 
and only sprinkled with scattered hairs or a little 
down. A large pouch of skin, capable of being 
inflated, hangs like a loose dewlap from the lower 
part of the neck, anterior to the breast, giving to 
the birds an uncouth aspect, and reminding us of 
some of the vulture tribe, a resemblance which 
their general form, movements, and carrion appetite 
tend to strengthen. They are in fact voracious and 
highly carnivorous, and the structure of the stomach 
IS in accordance with their appetite. The solvent 
glands are differently arranged from those of any 
other bird. Instead of being placed round the 
upper portion of the stomach, they form two circu- 
lar figures, about one inch and a half in diameter, 
one placed on the anterior, one on the posterior 
part of the stomach ; each gland is composed of five 
or six cells, which pcur out the solvent fluid through 
one common tube or duct : the gizzard is lined with 
Vol. II. 



a horny cuticle. (Fig. 1921, the Stomach of the Ad- 
jutant.) 

Some degree of confusion with respect to the 
identity of the Indian and African species has arisen 
in consequence of the misappropriation of names 
by M. Temminck, who applied the term Marabou 
to the Indian species, whereas it is the native Sene- 
gal name of the African species, as Argala is that 
of the Indian. The term Marabou is given in 
Europe to the beautiful plumes obtained from each 
of these birds, but as those of the Indian species are 
the finest, M. Temminck transferred the name to 
that bird, and robbing it of its own (viz. Argala), be- 
stowed it upon the African, thus interchanging their 
respective titles. This point has been ably cleared 
up in the appendix to Major Denham's ' Travels.' 

The Adjutant or Argala is a gigantic bird, mea- 
suring from the tip of the bill to the claws seven feet 
and a half, and in extent of wing from fourteen to 
fifteen feet, while in its ordinary erect attitude it stands 
five feet high. The beak is enormously thick and 
massive, and the gape wide. 

This bird is a native of the warmer parts of India, 
and is to be found near Calcutta : its great voracity 
renders it extremely useful, and it is not only tolerated, 
but revered by the natives, who are indignant against 
those who molest it: itswallowssnakes, lizards, frogs, 
vermin of all kinds, carrion, and bones, and with the 
kites and crows by day, and jackals and hyaenas at 
night, assists in the office of " scavenger public," 
clearing the streets, lanes, and fields of all sorts of 
ofFal. Sir. E. Home states that in the craw of one 
of these birds was found a land tortoise ten inches 
long, and a large male black cat entire. (Ives's 
' Voyage,' p. 184 ; ' Phil. Trans.' 1813, p. 77.) 

The argalas, says Dr. Latham, who was furnished 
by Mr. Smeathman with the account, are met with 
in companies, and when seen at a distance, near the 
mouths of rivers, coming towards an observer, which 
they often do with their wings extended, may well 
be taken for canoes upon the surface of a smooth 
sea — when on the sand-banks, for men and women 
picking up shell-fish or other things on the beach. 
One of these, a young bird about five feet high, was 
brought up tame, and presented to the chief of the 
Bananas, where Mr. Smeathman lived ; and, being 
accustomed to be fed in the great hall, soon became 
familiar, duly attending that place at dinner-time, 
placing itself behind its master's chair, frequently 
before the guests entered. The servants were obliged 
to watch narrowly and to defend the provisions with 
switches ; but, notwithstanding, it would frequently 
seize something or other, and once purloined a whole 
boiled fowl, which it swallowed in an instant. Its 
courage is not equal to its voracity, for a child of 
eight or ten years old soon puts it to flight with a 
switch, though at first it seems to stand on its defence, 
by threatening with its enormous bill widely extended, 
and roaring with a loud voice like a bear or tiger. 
It is an enemy to small quadrupeds, as well as birds 
and reptiles, and slily destroys fowls or chickens, 
though it dares not attack a hen openly with her 
young. Everything is swallowed whole ; and so 
accommodating is its throat, that not only an animal 
as big as a cat is gulped down, but a shin of beef 
broken asunder serves it but for two morsels. It is 
known to swallow a leg of mutton of five or six pounds, 
a hare, a small fox, &c. After a time the bones 
are rejected from the stomach, which seems to be 
voluntary, for it has been known that an ounce or 
two of emetic tartar given to one of these birds 
produced no effect. ('Gen. Hist, of Birds,' ix. 40, 
41.) 

General colour above ash grey; under parts white. 
The under tail-coverts delicate and floating, forming 
plumes of the most exquisite texture. 

1922.— The Marabou 

(Leptoptilos Marabou). Ciconia Marabou, Vigors, 
not Temminck. The beak of this species is repre- 
sented at Fig. 1923. 

The Marabou is smaller than the Argala ; it is a 
native of tropical Africa, and the neighbourhood of 
the large towns of the interior, where it was seen by 
Major Denham, in the character of a privileged 
visitor, on account of its utility as a scavenger. It 
is easily domesticated, and becomes annoyingly fa- 
miliar; it has been known not only to snatch pieces 
of meat from the table, but a boiled fowl, swallow- 
ing it at a bolt. The marabou flies high, and roosts 
in the topmost branches of tall trees, whence, as 
from a watch-tower, it looks abroad for its prey. 

The third species is a native of Java and Sumatra, 
where it is called, according to Marsden, Boorong 
Cambing, or Boorong oolar. It is described by 
Dr. Horsfield as the Ciconia Javanica (Leptoptilos 
Javanicus). 

Family TANTALID^ (IBIS, TANTALUS). 

In the birds of this Family the beak is arched, 
the apex blunt, the upper mandible channelled ; 
some portion of the head, sometimes the head and 



neck, are destitute of feathers, 
sembling those of the stork. 



Habits closely re> 



1924.— The Glossy Ibis 

(Ibis Fakinellus). Tantalus Falcinellus, Linn. ." 
le Couriis vert of Bufibn; Green Ibis, Latham; 
Glossy Ibis of the same. 

This species, probably the black ibis of Herodotus, 
and celebrated for destroying snakes, whence it was 
one among the sacred birds of Egypt, is migratory 
in its habits, annually visiting the borders of the 
Danube, Poland, Hungary, and Siberia, and occa- 
sionally other countries still more to the west; 
sometimes even appearing in our island. It is com- 
mon through the greater part of Asia and Africa, 
and its remains, with those of the sacred ibis, are 
found amongst the mummies of the Egyptian cata- 
combs. 

The glossy ibis lives in societies, and its migra- 
tions are performed in numerous flocks. It fre- 
quents the banks of rivers and lakes, and grounds 
recently inundated, feeding on reptiles, worms, in- 
sects, and also aquatic plants. Its general colour 
above is glossy greenish black with a metallic lustre, 
under parts bright chestnut; a naked skin ex- 
tending from the bill to the eye is green ; bill and 
legs blackish green. 

1925, 1926.— The Sacred Ibis 
(Ibis religiosa. Cuv.). Tantalus .iEthiopicus, La- 
tham ; Abou Hannes, Bruce. This species is no 
doubt the white ibis of Herodotus, described as 
being "familiar with man, and having no feathers on 
the head and neck ; white all over, except the head 
and neck, the tips of the wings, and the end of the 
rump, which are very black." 

It is to the celebrated traveller Bruce that we 
owe the recognition of this species as the sacred 
ibis, abundantly represented on Egyptian monu- 
ments, but which had been regarded by Linnaeus as 
the Tantalus Ibis, a species which, as Cuvier ob- 
serves, is not of common occurrence in Egypt, but 
is brought from Senegal. The views of Bruce have 
since been amply confirmed by GeofFry, Savigny, 
and Baron Cuvier, as well as by other naturalists. 

The sacred Ibis, called in Upper Egypt and Ethi- 
opia, Abou Hannis, or FatherJohn, and by the peo- 
ple of Lower Egypt Abou-menzel, or Father Sickle- 
bill, visits that country, being a migratory bird, as 
soon as the waters of the Nile begin to rise ; and 
their numbers increase with the spread of the inun- 
dation, and diminish as it subsides. On their first 
arrival, they repair to the low lands over which the 
water is beginning to flow, and as its depth and 
extent augment, they gradually retire to higher 
grounds, and spread themselves along the sides of 
canals and watercourses which intersect the culti- 
vated country. 

This species lives either solitary or in small com- 
panies of eight or ten individuals, which may be 
seen leisurely walking about, or exploring the 
humid ground and mud in quest of food, which 
consists of land and fresh-water shells, which are 
swallowed whole, together with worms, insects, and 
small reptiles. Its flight is lofty ; and, as it sweeps 
along from one spot to another, it utters at intervals 
a hoarse loud cry. 

Where the Sacred Ibis breeds does not appear to 
be ascertained : most probably in the central parts 
of Africa. Salt, on rounding Cape Guardafui from 
the south, saw near the coast a lagoon abounding in 
wild-fowl, and on the borders of it stood numbers 
of these birds, which, as he says, are called Abou 
Hannes by the Arabs, the true Ibis of the Egyptians, 
as described by Herodotus, a fact proved by the 
head and neck being bare and of a deep black 
colour. " It may be worthy," he adds, " to remark 
that Strabo mentions this bird as frequenting the 
coast to the east of the Straits of Babelmandeb."' 
It has been a matter of dispute whether this ibis 
kills and devours snakes, or the contrary, Herodotus 
having stated that armies of flying serpents, the 
bones of which he saw in incredible multitudes in a 
narrow gorge between two mountains in a part of 
Arabia, a little beyond the city of Brutus, were inter- 
cepted every spring by the ibis, and destroyed. It 
would appear, however, that it was not by this bird, 
but by the black ibis, that this feat was annually 
performed. That both birds may swallow small 
snakes we cannot doubt ; but the narration of 
Herodotus carries with it its own refutation. He 
saw the bones of snakes in incredible multitudes, 
whence it may be inferred that the reptiles in ques- 
tion were not devoured at all ; and we cannot sup- 
pose the ibis would kill them for any other object 
than that of preying upon them. It is evident that 
Herodotus was himself imposed upon : he describes 
the serpents, which he does not say he had seen 
alive as resembling the water-snake, but with wings 
destitute of feathers, and smooth like those of a bat. 
M. Savigny found in the crops of the fiesh-killed 
specimens of the sacred ibis, which he examined in 
Egypt, only land and fresh-water shells (Cyclasto- 

F2 




IMS. ■ SuHi IbU. 




IMS. Hill ,i Mtnbou. 




IM6.— SKred IbU. 






Itlii— A<t)M*B«. 



mas.,— Adjutant. 



1»24.— aioMy Ibll. 





l»21.-Stom«li of A(^•at•nt. 



mt^limhea. 




I918.-J«bini. 



36 







l!i33.— Flamingoes. 



1934.— Flamingo. 



37 



38 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Spoonbills, 



matA, AmpuUarue, Planorbc) ; but, on the other 
hand, Cutier detected the remain* of the skin and 
scales of unakes, still undigested, in one of the 
mummies of the ibis, which be deposited in the 
anatomical gallery of the Paris Museum. We 
aeain repeat it, that, though the story told by 
Herodotus is unwcrthy of serious notice, both this 
species and the black ibis may devour small ser- 
pents and oiher reptiles. The Ibis religiosa, says 
Cuvier, " was entertained in the temples of ancient 
Egypt with the observances of religious worship, 
and after death was embahned, and this because, 
according to some, it devoured the serpents which 
would become the pests of the land ; according to 
others, because there was some similitude between 
its plumage and one of the phases of the moon ; 
and, finally, because, according to others again, ite 
appearance announced the rise of the Nile." The 
last was probably the true reason. 

The sacred ibis is about the size of a fowl ; in its 
immature state the neck is partially covered with 
down of a blackish tint, which disappears when the 
plumage is mature, leaving the head and neck bare, 
which, with the beak and legs, are of a decided 
black colour. The general plumage is of a pure 
white, wi»h the exception of the tips of the quill- 
feathers, which are of a glossy black, with violet 
reflexions ; as are also the last four secondaries, 
which have the barbs singularly elongated and 
silky, so as to form a graceful plume, hanging down 
over the wines and tail, presenting an effective 
contrast with the purity of the rest of the plumage. 

Family PLATALEID^E (SPOONBILLS). 

In this group the singular form of the bill at once 
arrests attention: it is long, powerful, gradually 
flattening from a stout base, and at last expanding 
into a rounded shovel-like termination. The upper 
mandible is transversely marked with slight furrows, 
and channelled along its edge from each nostril, 
which has an upper site, near the base of the man- 
dible. The form of the nostrils is oblong. The 
face is more or less naked. The limbs are long and 
robust. The three anterior toes are united by a 
web as far as the second joint. The wings are long 
and ample. The feathers of the neck are very close- 
set. Figs. 1927 and 1928 represent the Beak of the 
Spoonbill. The birds of this group are shy and re- 
tiring, and live in society in wild wooded marshes, 
about the borders of lakes and the mouths of rivers, 
but rarely visit the sea. Their food consists of 
fishes, moUusks, small reptiles, the larvae of aquatic 
insects, &c. They generally build on trees, but oc- 
casionally in bushes, or even amidst the luxuriant 
vegetation of the swamp. 

It is not till the third year that the young assume 
the colouring of the adult ; and the beak, which is 
covered with a vascular membrane, gradually ac- 
quires its full dimensions and hardness. 

1929. — The Common Spoonbih, 

fPlatalea leucorodia). Pale, Poche, Cueillar, Truble, 
and Spatule blanche of the French ; Becquaroneglia 
end Cucchiarone of the Italians; Weissar-Laffler 
and Laffelgans of the Germans ; Lepelaar of the 
Netherlanders ; y Lldon big of the ancient British. 

The common spoonbill is widely spread over 
Europe, the adjacent districts of Asia, and Africa. 
It visits Holland every spring in considerable num- 
bers, migrating with the storks ; and is also to be 
found in the marshy districts of France. It is 
essentially a bird of passage, resorting in winter to 
Africa, where it extends its range southwards, even 
to the Cape of Good Hope, frequenting the mouths 
of rivers and marshes ; in our island it rarely makes 
its appearence. Pennant mentions a large flight 
which arrived in the marshes near Yarmouth, 1774. 
Montagu records it as having been sometimes seen 
during winter on the coast of South Devon, and 
mentions the receipt of two specimens from that 
part of the country, one in November, 1804, and a 
second in March, 1807. Dr. Lathem mentions an 
instance of its occurrence on the Kentish coast. 
Mr. Yarrell records two specimens which were shot 
in Lincolnshire, in 1826 ; and Mr. Selby states that, 
when in London, in May, 1830, he obtained a male 
and female, in fine tldult plumage, from Norfolk ; 
adding, •' From the time of the year at which these 
birds were killed, it is not improbable that they 
would have remained to breed in the district se- 
lected ; and though my collection has profited by 
their capture, I must still regret that they were not 
allowed to remain in secunty." The food of this 
bird consists of the fry of fishes, aquatic worms, 
mollusks, insects, and the roots of some weeds and 
grasses, in quest of which it explores the muddy 
water with its broad bill, at the same time rapidly 
opening and shutting the mandibles. The flesh of 
the spoonbill is said very nearly to resemble that of 
a goose, without any fishy or unpleasant flavour. 
In its anatomy, says Mr. Selby, this bird shows an 
affinity to the cranes; the windpipe .previous to 



entering the chest assumes a double flexure, to the 
extent of about two inches, forming a convolution 
similar to the figure 8; the flexures touch, but do 
not cross each other, the points of contact being 
united by fine membranes. Temminck and others 
have supposed that this peculiarity was to be found 
only in the male ; but, as is now well known, it 
equally occurs in the female. The nest of this 
species is sometimes placed on trees, sometimes in 
rushes and reeds ; the eggs are generally three in 
number, white, and usu^ly marked with obscure 
red spots. The general plumage of the spoonbill is 
white, with the exception of a broad pectoral mark of 
ochreous yellow, which extends round the base of 
the neck ; the naked skin round the eyes and throat 
yellow, but on the lower part of the latter slightly 
tinged with red. Bill blacK, bluish in the hollow of 
the furrows, and ochreous yellow at the apex. Iris 
red ; legs black. Length two feet six inches. 
Length of bill eight inclies and a half. Head with 
a fine crest of long slender feathers, which can be 
raised or depressed at will. The female is some- 
what smaller, with a less developed crest, and a 
paler chest-mark. The young have no crest ; the 
undeveloped bill is soft and flexible, about four 
inches long, and covered by a smooth ash-coloured 
skin ; the naked parts of the head are of a dull 
white. The general plumage is white, excepting 
the quills, which are black along the shafts and at 
their ends. The yellow patch on the chest does 
not appear till the second or third year. 

Family PHCENICOPTERID.^; (FLAMINGOES). 

Elevated as are the legs of these birds, a consi- 
deration of many important points in their structure 
will at once convince, that of all the Grallatorial or 
Wading order, they approach by far the nearest to 
the true swimming birds (Natatores). We may 
here allude to Professor Owen's account of the ana- 
tomy of the Flamingo in the' Proceeds. Zool. Soc' 
1832, p. 141 ; which it would be out of place to 
follow in a work like the present, though not to 
have noticed it would have been unpardonable. 

We cannot describe the beak of the flamingo 
better than by saying it is that of a swan bent down 
abruptly in the middle, with the sides of the lower 
mandible raised boat-like, so that its margin may 
follow the abrupt arch presented by the edge of 
the upper, which is channelled on each side on the 
upper aspect of the margin, from the nostrils to the 
hard nail-like apex. To enter into detail, we may 
observe, that the head is small, surmounting a slen- 
der neck of extraordinary length, while the beak is 
so modified as to be used in the contrary position 
to which it is in general ; that is, the upper man- 
dible is applied lowermost to the mud and ooze 
while the bird is searching for food. The upper 
mandible proceeds for about half its length from 
the head straight, v;ith an obtuse upper ridge, and 
in the part below the ridge is an extensive mem- 
branous nasal fossa, on which are seated the nostrils 
in the form of longitudinal slits; the mandible then 
becomes flat, and bends down abruptly, terminating 
in a blunt and somewhat incurved apex. The lower 
mandible, extending forwards and describing on its 
lower margin a gentle curve, throws up its sides, 
which describe a bold arch, the edge fitting the 
edge of the upper mandible. The edges of both 
mandibles are furnished with fine, close, transverse 
tooth-like laminae, which form a sort of filter, and, 
as Professor Owen says, like the plates of whale- 
bone on the whale, allow the superfluous moisture 
to drain away, while the small moUusca and other 
littoral animalcula are detained and swallowed. 
"The tongue," says the same writer, " is remarkable 
for its texture, magnitude, and peculiar armature. 
It is almost cylindrical, but slightly flattened above, 
so as to correspond with the form of the inferior 
mandible. The lower part of the truncated surface 
is produced in a pointed form, and is supported be- 
neath by a small horny plate. The whole length 
of the tongue is three inches, its circumference two 
inches and a half. Along the middle of the superior 
flattened surface there is a moderately deep and wide 
longitudinal furrow, on either side of which there 
are from twenty to twenty-five recurved spines, but 
of a soft and yielding horny texture, measuring from 
one to three lines in length. These spines are ranged 
in an irregular alternate series, the outer ones being 
the smallest, and these indeed may be considered a 
distinct row. At the posterior part of the tongue 
there are two groups of smaller recumbent spines, 
directed towards the glottis. The substance of the 
tongue is not muscular, but is chiefly composed of 
an abundant yielding cellular substance with fat of 
an almost oily consistence. It is supported by a long 
and thin concave cartilage articulated to the body of 
the OS hyoides." Fig. 1930 represents the Skull and 
Beak of the Flamingo ; Fig. 1931, the Tongue ; Fig. 
1932, the Head and Tongue of the same. In the 
flamingo the legs are of excessive length ; the three 
anterior toes are fully webbed ; the hind toe is short, 
and articulated high on the tarsus ; nails short and 



flat ; wings moderate. These birds are wadeis in 
their habits, but occasionally swim when out oitheir 
depth. They frequent low muddy coasts, the mouths 
of large rivers, saline morasses, creeks, lagoons, in- 
land seas, and large lakes. 

1933— 1935.— Thb Flamingo 

(Pheenicoptents ruber, Linn). Phoenicopterus an- 
tiquorum, Temminck ; le Flammant of the French. 
The European Flamingo, a bird well known to the 
ancients, has been occasionally observed on the 
coast of France washed by the Mediterranean, of 
those of Spain and Italy, ft is noted by the Prince 
of Canino as a rare and accidental visitor near 
Rome. It arrives at uncertain times, but mostly in 
October and November, on the Persian side of the 
Caspian Sea, and thence along the west coast as fat 
as the Wolga, appearing in considerable flocks, 
which have migrated from more northern latitudes. 
It is found in India, and Colonel Sykes enumerates- 
it among the birds of the Dukhun, stating that it is 
called Rajah Huns by the Hindoos. It breeds in 
the Cape de Verde Islands. It is seen everywhere 
on the African coast, and is abundant in South 
Africa ; Le Vaillant saw thousands of flamingoes 
and pelicans of the river Klein-brak, where the 
water is brackish owing to the tidal flow from the 
ocean. Kolben also speaks of their numbers at the 
Cape, where by day they resorted to the borders of 
lakes and river, and lodged at night among the long 
grass on the hills. 

The flamingo is extremely shy, wary, and distrust- 
ful, so that it IS difficult to approach within gun-shot 
of a flock, as on the slightest alarm they abruptly 
leave the spot. Dampier, however, by concealing 
himself, managed to kill fourteen at once. Whilst 
feeding, those birds keep together, drawn up in lines, 
with sentinels by way of security. These notify the 
approach of danger by a loud trumpet-like noise,, 
which may be heard to a great distance, upon which 
the whole flock take wing. When flying, they form 
a triangle. The flamingo rests standing on one 
leg, the other being drawn up close to the body, and 
the head placed under the wing. 

M. dela Marmora, in his 'Voyage to Sardinia,' 
gives the following account of the habits of this re- 
markable bird : — " It quits Sardinia about the end of 
March, to return about the middle of August ; then 
it is that from the bastion which forms the promenade 
of the inhabitants of Cagliari, flights of these mag- 
nificent birds may be seen to arrive from Africa. 
Disposed in a triangular band, they appear at first 
in the heavens like a line of fire ; they advance in 
the most regular order, but at the sight of the 
neighbouring lake there is a pause in their progres- 
sion, and they appear for a moment immoveable in 
the air ; then tracing by a slow and circular move- 
ment a reversed conical spiral figure, they attain the 
end of their migration. Brilliant in ail the splen- 
dour of their plumage, and ranged in a line, these- 
birds offer a new spectacle and represent a small 
army ranged in order of battle, the uniformity and 
symmetry of which leaves nothing to be desired ; 
but the spectator should content himself with ob- 
serving this peaceful colony from afar. Woe to him 
if he dare approach the lake at this deadly season." 
The exemption of various animals, the flamingo and 
buffalo for example, from the poison of the malaria, 
so fatal to man, is very remarkable. 

The flamingo makes a singular nest, constructing- 
it of earth, in the shape of a hillock, with a cavity 
at the top ; the eggs are two or three in number,, 
white, and as large as those of a goose, but of a 
longer figure. These hillocks they form in the 
marshes, the female resting upon them during in- 
cubation in a standing attitude, with the feet on the 
marshy ground, or even in the water. Some state 
that the flesh of the flamingo is excellent, that of 
the young being equal to partridge. The inhabit- 
ants of Provence, however, affirm that it is fishy, 
and reject it, preserving only the feathers. The 
Romans, whose taste in culinary matter seems to 
have been singular, regarded this bird as a luxury, 
and Apicius has left receipts for dressing it with all 
the precision of a " chef de cuisine." The brains 
and tongues were especial favourites, particularly 
the latter, which formed one of the celebrated 
dishes of Heliogabalus. Dampier confirms the' 
opinion of the Roman epicures, observing that a 
dish of these tongues is worthy a place at a prince's 
table. The height of the flamingo, standing erect, is 
between five and six feet. When in full plumage 
the general colour is deep scarlet, excepting the 
quill-feathers, which are black. Basal part of the 
bill reddish yellow ; the greater part of the ex- 
tremity black ; cere at the base of the bill, extending 
to the eye, fles'n-coloured. Legs red. An allied 
species, regarded by Linnaeus and Wilson as identi- 
cal with the present, is an inhabitant of the warmer 
parts of North America, Peru, Chili, Cayenne, the 
West India Islands, and especially the Bahamas, 
i where numbers breed. It scarcely differs from the 
I Old World bird, but is not so intensely coloured ; 



Flamingoes.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



39 



its manners are precisely the same. It is the 
Phcenicopterus Chilensis of Molina, and the Ph. 
ruber of Brisson and Bonaparte. 

1936. — The Little Flamingo 

(Ph/enicopterus parvus). This species is a native 
of Africa, tenanting morasses and the borders of 
lakes. Specimens have been brought from Senejja! 
and the Cape of Good Hope. The lower mandible 
is remarl;able for its great depth, and the boldness 
of the arch formed by the upper edges, which com- 
pletely receive within them those of the upper 
mandible. The plumage of the adult is of a pure 
rose, without a spot or streak, the centre of the wing- 
coverts deepening into scarlet; tail-feathers black ; 
base of the bill, cere, and region of the eye deep 
purple ; middle of the lower mandible orange-red, 
point black ; tarsus livid ; toes and space above the 
tarsal joint red. Total length nearly three feet. 
The young are white or whitish, marked with streaks 
of brown on the head, neck, chest, and wing-coverts. 
The rose tint first besfins to appear on the wings. 
Bill black. Legs reddish livid. 

ORDER NATATORES. 

This order, agreeing with the Anseres of Linnaeus, 
contains those families of birds which display de- 
cidedly aquatic habits ; which swim with facility, 
"ha-ntine: rivers, lakes, and seas, and whose whole 
structure adapts them for their appointed station. 
Hence have they obtained the expressive name of 
Waterfowl. As a rule it may be observed that the 
birds of this order are awkward on the land, and the 
more so the more exclusively they tenant the water; 
for, in order to the stroke of their paddle-feet being 
-as effective as possible, the limbs are placed behind 
the centre of gravity, and thrown, as for instance 
in the Grebes, as far backwards as possible, and the 
tarsi are short and compressed. Hence on the 
ground these birds have either to maintain their 
balance by dint of continual muscular exertion, as 
we see in the swan when it labours over the grassy 
bank, or, as in the grebe, they are oblisfed to assume 
an erect attitude. The feet are webbed, but in a 
different manner in different families. Among 
the waders, the Phalaropes, in the structure of 
their feet, approach nearest to certain groups, 
while others are fully webbed ; and these the 
flamingoes, among the waders, the most completely 
resemble. In order to make the stroke, the foot is 
■first drawn forwards, when the toes close together 
and the webs fold, so as to offer to the water the 
lea^t possible resistance ; but when the back-stroke 
is made, the toes spread out, while the action of the 
limb is at the same time (in most instances) obliquely 
outwards. 

Fig. 1937 represents the Feet of three Water-birds, 
and of the Phalarope, by way of comparison : a is 
the Foot of the Diver (Colymbus) ; b, that of the 
Cormorant ; c, that of the Grebe, divided into dis- 
tinct oar-blades, capable of overlapping each other ; 
d is the lobated Foot of the Phalarope, approximat- 
ing to a webbed character. 

The form of the body in the water-birds is boat- 
like ; and in those that dive, the ribs are strong, and 
carried down so as almost entirely to surround and 
defend the internal viscera from undue pressure. 
The plumage is thick, close, and water-proof. There 
is a dense under-garment of down, overlaid by large, 
sometimes silky, feathers, which throw oft' the water 
AS if their surface was oiled. In many the neck is 
long, and the tail very short ; in some the tail, com- 
posed of rigid feathers, acts as a rudder in the act 
of diving. A few are utterly incapable of flight, 
but use their wings as paddles in the water. From 
this order man has reclaimed several species for the 
sake of their flesh, which is excellent. 

Family ANATID^ (DUCKS, SWANS, &c.). 

The family Anatidse comprehends the Swans, 
Ducks, Geese, and Mergansers, distinguished by 
webbed feet with the hind-toe free, and a depressed 
Tiail-pointed bill, the mandibles being covered with 
a sort of tough skin, and having laminated edges, 
very similar to what we have contemplated in the 
Flamingo. 

We place in juxfa-position with these birds a 
specimen of that extraordinary animal the Ornitho- 
rhynchus of Australia (Fig. 1938), in order to show 
how, even among creatures coming within the pale of 
the Mammalia, organization is adapted to particular 
habits and instincts. In this quadruped, which in 
many anatomical details approaches the reptiles, 
but which is aquatic, and feeds like a duck, squash- 
ing by a rapid action of the mandibles the mud and 
water through the beak, and retaining insects and 
mollusks, we find the feet largely webbed, and the 
mouth transformed into a beak approximating in 
shape to that of one of these birds, covered with a 
sensitive tough skin, and laminated on the edges. 
We can easily pardon those who, when the discovery 
of this strange quadruped was first announced, were 



inclined to believe that a fabricated creature, which 
had no real existence, had been prepared, com- 
pounded of the beak and webbed feet of some water- 
fowl, and the skin of a young otter, or other animal, 
and imposed upon the too credulous naturalists of 
our country. 

To return from the beak of the Ornithorynchus 
to that of the duck, we may observe that it is at once 
a feeler, a strainer, and an organ of prehension. 
It is highly sensitive, and feels out food in the mud, 
where it is used with singular address. The skin, 
and especially the margins of the mandibles, are 
freely supplied by fine branches of the fifth pair of 
nerves (see the Skull of the Duck, Fig. 1939), which 
endow it with a discriminating sensibility. 

We have said that it is a strainer, the edges being 
laminated, or furnished with close-set, transverse 
lamellae. These in some are more developed than 
in other species, and in the Shoveller Duck (Rhyn- 
chaspis Clypeata, Leach, Spathulea Clypeata, 
Fleming) this lamination is at its maximum, and 
presents the appearance in both mandibles of a fine 
pectinated appendage, accompanied with great di- 
latation and depression of the front part of the bill, 
which is spatulate, or spoon-shaped. At Fig. 1940, 
a represents a section of the tipper mandible of the 
Shoveller, showing the development of the lami- 
nation ; while b represents the lower jaw of the 
Common Duck. 

In accordance with the sensibility and structure 
of the beak in the Anatidae, is the tongue modified. 
It is also a sensitive organ, and, instead of being 
slender and horny, is large and fleshy, and furnished 
on its margin and other parts with rough appendages. 
The tongue, in fact, co-operates with the mandibles 
in the discrimination and appropriation of food. 

Among other points to be noticed is the structure 
of the trachea, which in certain groups presents in 
the male a singular osseous drum, or capsule, just 
before its bifurcation, differing in form according to 
the species. In other forms, again, the trachea is 
singularly convoluted before entering the chest. 
The gizzard is strong and muscular; in many 
species it is of enormous volume, and lined with a 
very thick, tough, or almost horny coat, and is 
capable of grinding down the shells of mussels and 
other mollusks, on which they live, and for which 
they dive with wonderful rapidity : we refer to such 
species as the Scoter-Ducks (Oidemia) and the 
Eider-Ducks (Somateria), birds which tenant the 
sea. The Anatidse are dispersed over every part of 
the globe, and are generally migratory in their 
habits. Their flight is vigorous and rapid, and the 
flocks assume during their aerial progress, definite 
figures, as lines or wedges; generally at a very 
great altitude. 

Fig. 1941 represents a Group of Water-fowl : — 
a, the Teal (Querquedula Crecca, Stephens) ; b, the 
Wigeon, male and female (Mareca Penelope, Selby) ; 
c, the Tame Swan (Cygnus Olor) ; d, the Mallard, 
or Wild Duck, male (Anas Boschas, Linn.) ; e, the 
Tame Duck, male ; /, the Muscovy Duck, or Musk 
Duck (Anas moschata); g, the Domestic Goose 
(Anser palustris, Fleming ; Anser cinereus, Meyer). 

Of the Family Anatidae we shall first direct our 
attention to the Swans, which constitute a distinct 
and well-defined group, comprising several species. 

1941, c— The Tame Swan 

{Cygnm olor). Cygne of the French; Cigno and 
Cigno reale of the Italians ; Schwan and Hocker 
Schwan of the Germans ; Tarn Svane of the Danes ; 
Alarch of the Welsh; Swan and Mute Swan, 
English. The genus Cygnus is characterized by the 
beak being of equal breadth throughout its length, 
higher than wide at its base, and depressed at the 
point ; both mandibles furnished along the edge with 
transverse lamellae ; nostrils oblong and lateral near 
the middle of the beak. Neck slender and very 
long : legs short ; the hind-toe small and free. 

The tame or mute swan, so well known in a state 
of semi-domestication on our ornamental sheels of 
water, our lakes, meres, and large rivers, of which 
it is so conspicuous an ornament, is not an aboriginal 
of our islands, but is found in the eastern portions 
of Europe and the adjacent parts of Asia, where 
inland seas, vast lakes, and extensive morasses afford 
it a congenial home. In Siberia and some parts of 
Russia it is common, and abounds on the shores of 
the Caspian Sea. It is migratory in its habits. 

When this graceful bird was introduced into 
England we cannot ascertain ; we find, however, that 
at an early period it was regarded as royal pioperty, 
and under the protection of authorized swan-herds, 
or masters of the King's swans, while the stealing 
of one of these birds, or of the eggs of swans out of 
their nests, was punished with great severity. 

The following observations relative to the right of 
keeping swans are taken from the 'Penny Cyclo- 
paedia ;' they are evidently drawn up by one of the 
"juris legumque periti," and the references are 
made to some works which we have never read : — 
" In England the swan is said to be a bird royal, in 



which no subject can have property, when at large 
in a public river or creek, except by grant from the 
crown. In creating this privilege, the crown grants 
a swan-mark (cygninota), for a game of swans, called 
in law Latin deductus (a pastime, un dcduit) cyg- 
norum, sometimes volatus cygnorum. (7 Coke's 
Hep., 17.) In Scotland the swan is said not to be a 
royal bird (Erskine's Instit., b. ii., tit. 6),; but whilst 
all proprietors in that country have the right of 
fowling within their own grounds, swans, unless 
specially granted, appear to be reserved to the 
crown. (Stair's Instit., b. ii., t. 3, s. 60 : and see 
Ducange, Cygnos lialKtidi jus.) In the reign of 
Elizabeth upwards of 900 corporations and indi- 
viduals had their distinct swan-marks, some of 
which may be seen in Yarrell's ' British Birds,' vol. 
iii., 121, &c. 

"Sometimes, though rarely, the crown, instead of 
granting a swan-mark, confers the still greater pri- 
vilege of enjoying the prerogative right (within a 
certain district) of seizing white swans not marked. 
Thus the Abbot of Abbotsbury, in Dorsetshire, had 
a game of wild swans in the aestuary formed by the 
Isle of Portland and the Chesil Bank. The swannery 
at Abbotsbury is the largest in the kingdom, which, 
though formerly considerably more extensive, still 
numbers many hundreds of these birds, forming an 
object of considerable attraction and interest to 
those who visit this part of the south coast : it is 
now vested ia the Earl of Ilchester, to whose an- 
cestor it was granted on the dissolution of the mo- 
nasteries. (7 Co. Rep. 17 ; Hutchins, Dorset, i. 538.) 
"The privilege of having a swan-mark, or game of 
swans, is a freehold of inheritance, and may be 
granted over. But by 22 Edw. I'V., c. 6, no person, 
other than the king's sons, shall have a swan-mark, 
or game of swans, unless he has freehold lands or 
tenements of the clear yearly value of five marks 
{31. 6s. fid.), on pain of forfeiture of the swans, one 
moiety to the king and the other to any qualified 
person who makes the seizure. In the first year of 
Richard III. the inhabitants of Crowland, in Lincoln- 
shire, were exempted from the operation of this act 
upon their petition setting forth that their town 
stood ' all in marsh and fen,' and that they had 
great games of swans, ' by which the greatest part 
of their relief and living had been sustained.' (6 
Rot. Pari., 260.) 

" The city of Oxford has a game of swans by pre- 
scription, though none are now kept. In the 
sixteenth century (when a state dinner was not com- 
plete unless a swan was included in the bill of fare) 
this game of swans was rented upon an engagement 
to deliver yearly four fat swans and to leave six old 
swans at the end of the term. By the corporation 
books it also appears that in 1.557 barley was pro- 
vided for the young birds at lid. a bushel, and that 
tithes were then paid of swans. 

" Two of the London Companies have games of 
swans, the Dyers' and the Vintners' Company, and 
are, with the crown, the principal owners of swans 
in the Thames. In August, 1841, the queen had 
232, the Dyers 105, and the 'Vintners 100 swans in 
the river. Formerly the Vintners alone had 500. 
The swan-mark of the Dyers' Company is a notch, 
called a ' nick,' on one side of the beak. The swans 
of the Vintners' Company, being notched or nicked 
on each side of the beak, are jocularly called 'swans 
with two necks,' a term which has long been used as 
a sign by one of the large inns in London. 

"On the first Monday in August in every year the 
swan-markers of the crown and the two Companies 
of the city of London go up the river for the pur- 
pose of inspecting and taking an account of the 
swans belonging to their respective employers, and 
marking the young birds. In antient documents 
this annual expedition is called swan-upping, and 
the persons employed are denominated swan-uppers. 
These are still the designations used amongst the 
initiated, though popularly corrupted into swan- 
hopping and swan-hoppers. 

" The swan-markers proceed to the different parts 
of the river frequented by the swans for breeding, 
and other places where the birds are kept. They 
pay half-a-crown for each young bird to the fisher- 
men who have made nests for the old birds, and 
two shillings per week to any person who during the 
winter has taken care of the swans by sheltering 
them in ponds or otherwise protecting them from 
the severity of the weather." 

Fig. 1942 is a representation of the Royal Swan- 
mark used in the last three reigns, and in the pre- 
sent, given by Mr. Yarrell, in whose valuable work 
on British birds will be found a mass of curious in- 
formation on this subject, together with delineations 
of sixteen different swan-marks. 

Fig. 1943 represents the Head of the tame Swan 
(Cygnus olor), remarkable for the development of 
the black naked cere, at the base which extends to 
the eye, rising on the anterior part of the forehead 
in the form of a large prominence, more conspicu- 
ous in the male than the female. The beak gene- 
rally is of an orange red, with the exception of the 




ll3»^SIuinof Pock. 




lt«?.— Koyml Swau-muk. 





6, Lower Jaw of Duck. 



1936. — riamingoes and XeaU 





153Tv— Feat of Walcl^bWi. 




1941.— Gi«apofVater.Fowl. 



1938.— Oraithorhj-ocliua. 



40 




19i6.— Head uf Hooper. 





1933.— Head of BUck S«an. 



lOjO.— Head tf licwick's Sv.a'J, 




IWS— Hfac! of Tiime Sivan. 





1944.— Riclimond Palace in the olcleu time. 



1952.— ne.id of Poli.-li Swan. 




p^Mkf 




1948 — Breasl-bone of 'Wikl S-.van. 




1931.— Wimlpipe of Bewick's SKta, 



i95t. — Brca^t-boae of BKick S«:m 




1947.— Brea«t b'me of UiM Swin. 



No. 56. Vol. II. 




1949.- Point of Keel of ilie above. 




[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



19i5.— GlzjnidofSivm. 



41 



42 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Swans. 



nail at the tip of the upper mandible, the edges of 
both, and of the nostrils which are black. 

Ill A natural state the femnk- swan, sedulously at- 
tended l)y her mate, forms her nest, which is a thick 
innsi of slicks, reeds, ftac*. and rushes, in the mid»l 
of roeds or oziers near the water. The eggs are six 
or tii?ht in number. The young birds are termed 
Cycnets, and are covered with a greyish brown 
tdumnire, which is not entirely lost till the begmning 
of the third year. Tliough the swan is in general 
veiy gentle and inoffonsive. the male will defend 
the nest with ereat courage, and advance to the 
on-iet with ruflU-d pinions and every demonstration 
of amrcr, nor is it, from its muscular powers, an an- 
ta^nist to be despised. 

The swan is very long-lived, attaining to the age 
of even more than thirty vears. 

In this species the trachea, or windpipe, is simple, 
and passes into the chest without any previous con- 
volutions. 

Fig. 13-M represents Richmond Palace in the 
olden time, with the Tliames flowing before it, when, 
in numbers more considerable than the present, the 
•wan gave additional charms to the river, and wa.s 
looked upon as an appendase to the pomp of roy- 
alty; for in (he 2 Henry IV., c. 21, which directs 
that no lord shall give any livery or sign to any 
knight, esquiie, or yeoman, there is an express pro- 
viso thai the prince may give liis honourahk Urenj of 
lilt! sirnn lo Ins loi-ds and to gentlemen his menials. 
(3 Rot. I'nrl. 478. a.) 

The swiin feeds on aquatic weeds, and coarse 
gra?8 growing by the sides of rivers and in morasses, 
and the gizzard, which is very muscular, is well 
adapted for grinding the fibres to a pulp. Fii. 1945 
represents the Gizzard of the Swan opened to show 
its grinding surface and the zone of gastric glands. 

I'JIG.— The Hooper, or Whistling Swan, 
Head of 
(Cffjnutferus). Cygnus musicus, Bechstein ; Cygne 
tauvage of the French ; C'iirno salvatico of the Ita- 
lians ; Singschwan of the Germans ; Vikl Svane of 
the Danes ; Alarcli gwylt of the ancient British. 
• This species, which' differs in many important 
anatomical details from the preceding, is a native 
of nearly the whole of the noithern hemisphere, as 
far at lea4 as Europe and Asia extend ; for it ap- 
pears, according to the Prince of Canino, that in 
tlie h^gli latitudes of America it is represi-nted by a 
distiiRt though closely allied species, the Cygnus 
Americanus, Sharpless. 

The Hooper is a migratory bird, residing dniing 
the summer within the regions of the arctic circle, 
where it breeds in great numbers. It has been 
known, however, to incubate and rear ilsyounginthe 
Shetland and Orkney Islands. On the approach of 
winter, this bird leaves the dreary regions of the 
north for more southern latitudes, visiting the Hiitish 
Islands, Holland, Gei-many, Fiance, and Italy, ex- 
tending its journey even to Northern Afiica and 
Egypt. It performs its periodical flight in flocks of j 
greater or less extent, arranged in the figure of a 
wedge, travelling with vast rapidity, and at a great i 
elevation. The note which it utters while on the 
v.ing is harsh, and resembles the word hoop, re- 
peated several times successively ; yet this cry, when 
lieard from a flock high overheail and softened by 
distance, is not unmusical. The trachea, or windpipe, 
of this species is very remarkable. After passing 
ilownthe long neck of the swan, it descends between 
the two branches of the meriythought, and instead 
of then passing into the chest, it enters into the keel 
of the breast-bone, which is hollowed for its recep- 
tion ; here it extends backwards between the two 
ji'atesofthakeel, nearly throughout its whole extent, 
tiien suddenly turning upon itself, it passes forwards, 
and emeicing sweeps round the apical poilion of 
the merry Ihouirht, and so again turning back enters 
the chest, and there gives off two long branchial 
tubes, one to each lobe of the lungs. In females 
and young males the extent to which the windpipe 
enters the keel of the breast -bone is not so consider- 
able. ¥\ii. 1947 and 1948 represent the windpipe 
and breast-bone, with a portion of the keel removed 
BO as to expose the former : a, a, the trachea : b, the 
bony rinz, or lower larynx, whence are given oft' c, c, 
the two branchial tubes. Fig. 1949 shows the ante- 
rior portion of the keel, with the opening for the re- 
ception and exit of the trachea. 

\Vide mora-ses, lakes or tha mouths of rivers, and 
inundated grounds are the abode of this wary bird. 
On the first dawn of sprinii, the flocks which have 
spread themselves in small parties over our latitudes 
rolled and wing their way back to their northern 
b.eeding-haunts, scattering themselves over Nor- 
way. Iceland, Lapland, Spitzbeigen, and Siberia. 

Tne down of this species is very valuable, and is 
procured in great quantity by the Icelanders, to- 
gether with the feathers, not only for domestic com- 
tort, but for the purpose of barter. The season for 
s'.van-hunting in Iceland is during the month of Au- 
gust, when the old birds, having ca«t their quill-fea- 



thers, are unable to fly; the natives assemble in 
bodies in the places wlieie these birds collect, at- 
tended by dogs, and mounted upon small but active 
horses, well trained to p.iss over bogs and through 
marshy soil, and many are ridden down, but the 
greater number are caught by the dogs, which al- 
ways seize by the neck, a mode of attack that 
causes the bii-d lo loose ils balance and become an 
easy prev. 

The Hooper is smaller and much less gracclul 
than the tame swan ; in swimming it is never seen 
to throw up the plumes of its wings, nor assume any 
striking altitude, and it carries its neck erect and 
straight, instead of curved ; but while walking the 
head is lowered, and the neck reclines over the back 
to assist in preserving the equipoise of the body. 
In caiitivity it soon becomes lame, and has bred in 
the Zoological Gardens, but it does not associate 
with the tame swan. 

This species has no basal protuberance on the 
beak ; the base of the upper maiulible and cere, as far 
as the eye, are yellow, as is also the back part of the 
lower mandible; the point, as far as the nostrils, 
black— these two colours meet each other obliquely, 
the latter running obliquely backwards, the yellow 
advancing forwards along the sides, of the beak; 
iris brown ; feet black. Expanse of wings about 
eight feet. 

1950.— Bewicks Swan, Head of 
(Ci/gnm BeulcMi). This species is about one-third 
IcfS than ihe hooper. Its beak rises high at the base, 
which is yellow; the anterior portion, including 
more than the nostrils, black ; the tail-feathers are 
eii^hteen, in the hooper twenty ; the legs are of a 
deeper black than in the hooper, and the neck is 
more slender. Tli? ananireinent of the trachea, be- 
sides, is very different. "The tiibeof the windpipe,'' 
says Mr. "Vairell, " is of equal diameter throuch- 
ouf, and, descending in front of the neck, enters the 
keel of the sternum, which is hollow ixs in the 
hooper, traversing the whole length. Having ar- 
rived at the end ol the keel, the tube, then gradually 
inclining upwards and outwards, passes into a cavity 
in the sternum destined to receive it, caused by a 
separation of the parallel horizontal plates of bone 
forming the posterior flattened portion of the breast- 
bone, and producing a convex protuberance on the 
inner surface. The tube, also changing its direc- 
tion from vertical to horizontal, and reaching within 
half an inch of the posterior edge, is reflected back 
after making a considerable curve, till it once more 
reaches the keel ; again traversing vvhich, in a line 
immediately over the first portion of the tube, it 
passes out under the arch of the merrythought:: 
where turning upwards and afterwards backwards, it 
enters the body of the bird, to be attached to the 
lungs in (he usual manner. Tiiis is the state of de- 
velopment in the oldest bird I have yet met with. 
The degree next in order, or younger, differs in hav- 
ing the horizontal loop of the trachea confined to 
one side only of (he cavity in the sternum, both 
sides of which cavity are at this time formed, but 
the loop of the tube is not yet sufficiently elongated 
to occupy the whole space ; and the third in order, 
from a still younger bird, possesses only the vertical 
insertion of the (old of the trachea." Mr. Yarrell 
adds, however, that in this last case the cavity in the 
posterior part of the sternum already exists to acon- 
sideral)le extent. 

Bewick's swan is a native of the northern regions 
of Europe and Asia, as well as of America; though 
in his • Comparative List of the Birds of Europe and 
America,' the Prince of Canino does not give it as an 
American species, but parallels it with the Cygnus 
Buccinator. According to Temminck, it breeds in 
Icelan 1, and within the arctic circle, migrating 
southwards in spring ; but it appears to be much 
scarcer than the liooper. 

Captain Lyon describes Ihe nest as con^tructed of 
peat moss, nearly six feet long, four and three quar- 
ters wide, and two feet in height, with a cavity for 
the egas a foot and a half in diameter. Mr. Black- 
wall describes the cry of this species as loud, and 
states that a flock of twenty-nine were very clamor- 
ous. Mr. Sinclaire says the note of these birds in 
captivity is a low-toned whistle ; and Mr. Selby, " its 
voice is much weaker than that of the preceding 
species." Fig. 1951, a portion of the Trachea of 
Cygnu* Bewickii. 

1952.- Polish Swan, Head of 
(Ci/gnus immufabilh, Yarrell). Till recently (his 
species has been confounded wi(h the Cygnus olor, 
to which, of all the European swans, it is the most 
nearly related. There are, however, many important 
anatomical differences, especially in (he osleolosry of 
(he head. (Sec paper by \V. G. Pelerin, Esq., in 'Mag. 
Nat. Hist.' 1S,3J. )). 179.) The cygnets are white, a 
point in which it differs from every other species of 
white swan. In (he adult bird (he beak is reddish 
orange ; the lateral margins, the nail, (he nostrils, and 
base of the upper mandible are black. There is a 



small tubercle, which never acquires the size of that 
crramenting Ihe head of the Cygnus olor. Legs, 
toes, and intervening membianes slate grey. The 
windpipe is simple. The bird, a native of (he high 
northern regions and (he Baltic, is called by dealers 
the Polish swan, and occasionally visits our island. 
It is easily reconciled to captivity, breeding as freely 
as the common tame swan. The female of a pair of 
these swans, at Lord Derby's seat, Knowsley, having 
died, the male paired with a female of the ordinary 
tame species, and a brood was the result, but (he 
hybrids, though ohi enough, neither paired among 
themselves nor wi(h any of the tame swans on the 
same water. 

1953. — The Black Swan, Head of 

(Cyjntts «/m/H.s, Bennett). Anas Plulonia, Shaw; 
Chenoi)is atratus, Wagler. 

The black swan, by no means " rara avis in teriis," 
is a native of Australia, where it abounds on (he 
rivers and lakes, and on various islands along (he 
coast, and is usually seen in flocks, which are shy 
and waiy. 01 late years this boautilul bird has been 
introduced into our island, where it thrives and 
breeds, and will no doubt soon become iilmost as 
common as the tame swan. It is irascible in temper, 
and disposed to tyrannise over the weaker or more 
timid captives resident on the same piece of water. 

The black swan is inferior to the hooper in size ; 
its plumage is black, with (he excepdon of (he pri- 
mary and a few of the secondary quill-feathers, which 
are white ; but these are obscured by (he ciuled 
secondaries, which hang plume-like over (hem. The 
bill is of a bright red colour, crossed near (he nail 
by a whitish band ; its base in the male is surmounted 
by a slight protuberance, which is wanting in the 
female ; under ii.-ut of the bill greyish ■.vliite : legs 
and feet of a dull ash-colour : iris red ; trachea per- 
fectly simple, not unlike that of the Cygnus olor. 
Fig. 1954 represents the Tiachea and Breast-bone of 
(he Black Swan. The note of (his species is harsh. 

Various porttons of (he coast of .South America 
(Chili, (he Falkland Islands, Rio de la Plata, &c.) 
present us with a very beautiful species of swan 
(Cygnus nigricollis), distinguished by a jet black 
head and neck, contrasting admirably with (he 
snowy whKeness of the rest of the plumage. The 
bill is red ; the legs and feet flesh-colour. It equals 
the hooper in size. It has never, we believe, been 
brought alive to Europe. 

From the swans we shall proceed to (he ducks, 
which may be divided, again, into two sections, 
nAme]y, Jiin-iati/e and niaiine. The fiuviatile ducks 
have the neck and wings long, the tarsi round, the 
hind-toe without any lobe or paddle-like membrane; 
the gizzard is muscular, the ribs short, the keel of 
the breast-bone deep, an osseous drum at the lower 
part of the trachea. The birds of this division fre- 
quent rivers, lakes, swamps, &c., feeding upon aqua- 
tic vegetables, insects, worms, &c. : they seldom 
dive, unless superficially, and (hat rather in play- 
fulness, or when hard pressed by danger, than lor 
food. Their flight is powerful and rapid. To the 
specimens of the fiuviatile section of ducks we shall 
first direct our attention. 

19.")5. — The Shoveller 

(Ki/nchaspis cli/peala, Leacli). Spathuica cl}peata, 
Fleming and Selby ; Anas platyrhynchos, Ray ; 
Canard souchet on rouge of Buff'on ; Liiffel Eiite of 
Bechstein ; Cucchiarone of the It.ali;ins ; Hwyad 
lydanbig of the Welsh; Kerlutock, and Broad-bill, 
Provincial English. In (his genus the size and di- 
latation of (he bill at its extremity are very remark- 
able ; the edges are finely laminated, and the hooked 
rmil at the tip of (he upper mandible is small. Fig. 
19,-)G, the Bill of the Shoveller. 

The shoveller is a native of the noithern regions 
of Europe, Asia, and America; in Holland it is 
very abundant. In France, Germany, and England 
it is a bird of passage, arriving in October and de- 
parting nordiwards in March. A few pairs, however, 
occasionally breed both in cur island and Fiance ; 
but these may be deemed exceptions to the general 
rule. In America (he shoveller breeds in (he fur- 
countries, visiting the United States in the winter. 
It is called Mimenick by (he Cree Indians. The 
nest of this species is placed amidst (he reeds and 
(all herbage of marshes and (he borders of lakes ; 
the egiis are from twelve to fourteen in number, of 
a bright olive green. In the male the lower larynx 
of the windpipe is enlarged, and furnished on the 
side with a small, thin, bony drum or bladder, of 
irregular shape. 

llie flesh of the shoveller is excellent, and by 
many considered to excel that of the common 
wild duck. The food of this species consists of 
atpiatic insects, worms, and larva- ; these it pro- 
cures by silting the watery mud through the long 
and finely set teeth of its curious bill, each man- 
dible l)elng bordered by pectinated rows, exactly 
rcsenibling. as Wilson remarks, those of a weaver's 
reed, and which, fitting into each other, form a kind 



Ducks.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



43 



of sieve capable of retaining very minute worms, 
seeds, or insects. 

Tnc ir.ale shoveller is a beautiful bird ; its colour- 
inn is as follows : — 

Head, adjoining half of the neck, medial stiipe (o 
the interscapulars, the whole back, and primaries, 
umber brou n ; sides of the head, the neck, and the 
crest glossed with duck green ; rump and tail- 
coveits above and below, with blackish green. 
Lower half of the neck, the breast, shoulders, 
shorter scapulars, ends of the greater coverts, and 
sides of the rump white ; longer scajjulars striped 
with Berlin blue, white and blackish brown ; lesser 
coverts Berlin blue ; speculum on the wings brilliant 
grass green, broadly bordered above and narrowly 
edged below with white ; bounded interiorly with 
greenish black; belly and flanks deep orange brown, 
the latter undulated posteriorly with black ; bill 
black ; legs orange. 

The female is liver brown above, the feathers bor- 
dered with pale yellowish brown; under parts pale 
yellowish brown, with obscure liver-brown marks. 
Le.sser covei ts slightly glossed with blue ; winjj spot, 
or speculum, less vivid than in the male. Weight 
about twenty-two ounces. 

Among ttie broad-billed ducks of the southern 
hemisphere is that remarkable form to which Mr. 
Swainson has given the generic title of Malacorhyn- 
chus, and which is distinguished by the edge of the 
upper mandible being furnished with a thin mem- 
branaceous skin, projecting considerably on each 
side, and doubtless very sensitive, while the bill 
itself is extremely flexible. It is essentially formed 
for procuring food in mud and semi-fluid ooze. 

Fig. 1957 represents the Beak of Malacorhynchus. 

1058.— TnK Gadw.^ll 

{Chaiile'ai^mtis strepcrus, G. R. Gray). Chauliodus 
strepera, Swainson ; Anas strcpera, Linn. ; Chipeau 
or Uidenne of the French ; Anitra montanara and 
Anatra canapiglia of the Italians; Schwatterente of 
the Germans; y gors Hwyad Iwyd of the Welsh. 
In this genus the bill is of ccpial breadth throughout 
its length, and the laminations of the upper man- 
dible are very tine and well developed. The wings 
are long ; the tail is wedge-shaped. Fig. 1959 re- 
presents the Bill of the Gadwall. This beautiful 
duck is a native of the high northern latitudes of 
Europe, Asia, and America; in the latter country it 
was obseived, together with the mallard, by Dr. 
Richardson, breeding in the woody districts up to 
their most northern limits, in latitude G8°. The 
gadwall is a migratory bird, visiting Holland, France, 
and Italy during the winter. In our island it is not 
common ; but, at the period of its vernal passage to 
the north, appears in the marshes of Norfolk and 
the adjoining counties, the flocks being probably 
driven by adverse winds out of their usual course. 
In Holland it is vEiy abundant. Lakes, rivers, and 
mai-shes are the resort of this species, the sea-coast 
being seldom visited. It is remarkable for rapidity 
of flight and quickness in diving on the least alarm. 
Insects and their larvae, fresh-water shelled mollusks, 
small fishes, and aquatic plants and seeds constitute 
its food. Their eggs are from eight to twelve in 
number, of a pale olive green. The flesh of this 
bird is i.eld in high estimation. In the male the 
trachea is slightly enlarged in its diameter, at about 
two thirds of its length, but becomes narrower as it 
approaches the lower larynx : this consists of a large 
bony arch, with a pyriform drum or bulla attached 
to the left side, resembling that of the mallard, but 
smaller. 

In the male the head and upper part of the neck 
are liver brown, the feathers edged with grey ; 
lower part of the neck, breast, and mantle black, 
with concentric semicircles of white; scapulars, 
flanks, and sides rayed with zigzag lines of white 
and blackish brown ; lesser wing-coverts grey, mar- 
bled with yellowish white ; speculum while, with a 
black anterior border; quills and tail brown ; lump, 
upper and under tail-coverts bluish black ; under 
parts greyish white; bill brownish black; legs 
orange red. The female has the feathers of the 
back of a blackish brown, bordered with rufous ; 
the breast reddish brown, with black spots ; no zig- 
zag markings on the flanks ; rump and lower tail- 
coverts greyish. 

19C0.— The M.\li/bd 

(Atins Bosc/ias), Bill of. Boschas major, Brisson ; 
Canard sauvage of the French; Capo Verde (male), 
Anitra (female), Germano, and Paperone of the 
Italians ; Wilde Ente of the Germans ; Cors Hwyad, 
Garan Hwyad, and Hyonwy of the ancient Britons. 
This species is the origin of our domestic duck, and 
isspriad ever the northern and temperate portions 
of Europe, Asia, and America. It is everywhere a 
migratory bird : and though it breeds abundantly in 
our island and the adjacent parts of the Continent, 
yet the g.'eat rendezvous of the species is in the 
higher latitudes, v. hence, on the approach of winter, 
vait ficcks wing their way southwards, visiting 
Vol. II 



marshes, lakes, and rivers, and returning northwards 
early in spring. Though the domestic duck is poly- 
gamous, the wild birds pair, but do not mutually 
assist each other in the work of incubation or care 
of the brood, tor when the female begins to sit, the 
male deserts her and joins others of his sex, so that 
it is not unusual after .May to see the males (or mal- 
lards) in small companies by themselves. 

As is the case with the teal, wigeon, pintail, duck, 
&c., the plumage of the male, towards the middle 
of summer, undergoes a remarkable change, and 
approaches in colouring to that of the female; not, 
as it would seem, by a moult of the feathers, but by 
an actual change of tint. With the autumn moult, 
the drake regains his bcautil'ul dress. In the tame 
drake this alteration is not so definite. 

The female makes her nest in some dry spot in 
the marshes, not far from the water, and in the 
covert of dense tall herbage and bushes. It is coin- 
posed of withered grass and other vegetables ; the 
eggs are from ten to fourteen in number, of a bluish 
white. Wlien the female quits the nest for food, 
she covers the eggs with down and other substances. 
Though the female wild duck generally breeds in 
the marshes as stated, she occasionally chooses very 
different situations, and several instances have been 
recorded in which the eggs have been deposited 
on the fork of a large tree or in some deserted nest. 
Mr. Selby informs us that an instance of this kind 
came under his personal observation near his own 
residence ; the bird having laid her eggs in the old 
nest of a crow, at least thirty feet from the ground, 
and hatched her young ; " and as none were found 
dead under the tree, it is presumed that she carried 
them safely to the ground in her bill, a mode of 
conveyance known to be frequently adopted by the 
eider-duck.' Montagu says, " We have been as- 
sured by a person of undoubted veracity, that a half- 
domesticated duck made a nest in Rumford Tower, 
hatched her young and brought them down in 
safety to a piece of water at a considerable distance. 
Others have been known to breed in trees ; and we 
recollect the nei^t of this bird being found in the 
head of an old pollard willow impending the water, 
whence the young might readily drop unhuit into 
their natuial element. Mr. Etchington mentions 
one in Sussex which was found sitting upon nine 
eggs on an oak-tree twenty-five feet from the 
ground; and the author of the 'Rural Sports ' re- 
cords an instance of one taking possession of the 
nest of a hawk in a large oak. To these we can 
add, upon the testimony of a gentleman of the 
strictest veracity, that out of a large flock of half- 
domesticated duck.s, one deposited her eggs in the 
principal fork of a large tree near his house." 

In the drake, or male, the trachea is furnished at 
its lower laiynx with an osseous bulla of consider- 
able magnitude. 

In all countries the domestic duck is valued for 
the sake of its flesh, of the excellency of which 
nothing need be said. In China, where these birds 
are kept in vast numbers, housed at night in boats 
on the river, thousands are hatched by artificial 
means; the eggs are placed in tiers or boxes filled 
with sand, and subjected to the necessary degree of 
heat upon a floor of bricks. '• The ducklings are fed 
at first with a mess composed of boiled craw-fish or 
crabs, cut in small pieces and mixed with rice. In 
about a fortnight they are able to shift for them- 
selves, when they are placed under the guidance of 
an old stepmother, who leads them at stated times 
to feed, to and from the boat in which they are kept, 
and which is moved about by the owner to places 
likely to afford a plentiful supply of food." 

It is curioris to see how well a flock of three or 
four hundred ducks are trained to obey their master, 
for some thousands belonging to different boats 
will feed at large on the same spot, and, on a signal 
given, follow their leader to their respective boats 
without a stranger being found amongst them. 

Wild ducks were formerly much more abundant 
in our island than at present, in consequence of the 
drainage of our marshes. Pennant records that 
during one season in the neighbourhood of Wain- 
fleet,' of ducks, wigeons, and teals 31,200 were 
taken in only ten decoys, of which more than tvyo- 
thirds were of the present species ; and that at a sin- 
gle driving of the fens in Lincolnshire, before the 
young had taken wing, and while the old birds were 
in moult, one hundred and fifty dozens have been 
captured. The same district at the present time 
scarcely produces a dozen broods in the year. 

The mode of capturing wild ducks varies in 
different countries; at the Lakes of Peronne, in 
Picardy, the fowlers, concealed in huts of reeds, 
scatter destruction amidst the flocks by the gun, 
as is well detailed by Colonel Hawker. In China 
the sportsman covers his head with a calabash, and 
wading up to his neck, mixes with the flock, and 
seizing his victims by the feet, ])ulls them under 
the water, kills them, and fastens them to his 
giidle without cxtilmg any alarm among the sur- 
vivors. 



Figg 1901 and 19C2 are illustrative of the decoy 
plan adopted in the fens of Lincolnshire. 

In the lake to which the wild ducks resort, their 
most favourite haunts are obseived. Then in the 
most sequestered pait of this haunt a ditch is cut, 
which is about four yards across at the entrance, 
and decreases gradually in width from the entrance to 
the farther end, which is not more than two feet wide. 
The ditch is of a circular ibrm, but does not bend 
much for the first ten yards. The banks of the lake 
on each side of this ditch (or " pipe," as it is called) 
are kept clear from reeds, coarse herbage, &c., in 
order that the fowl may get on them to sit and dress 
themselves. Along the ditch, poles are driven into 
the ground, close to its edge, on each side, and the 
lops are bent over acrcss the dilch and tied toge- 
ther. These poles, thus bent, form at the entrance 
of the ditch or pipe an arch, the top of which is ten 
feet distant from the surface of the water. This 
arch is made to decrease in height as the pipe de- 
creases in width, so that the remote end is not more 
than eighteen inches in height. The i)oles are 
placed about six feet from each other, and connected 
by poles laid lengthwise acioss the arch and tied 
together. Over the whole is thrown a net, which 
is made fast to a reed-fence at the entrance and 
nine or ten yards up the ditch, and afterwaids 
strongly pegged to the ground. At the end of the 
pipe farthest from the entrance is fixed a "tunnel- 
net," as it is called, about four yards in length, of a 
round form, and kept open by a number of hoops, 
about eighteen inches in diameter, placed at a small 
distance from each other to keep it distended. 
Supposing the circular bend of the pipe to be to the 
right when one stands with his back to the lake, 
then on the left-hand side a number of reed-fences 
are constructed, called "shootings," for the purpose 
of screening the "decoy-man" from cbservalion, 
and in such a manner, that the fowl in the decoy 
may not be alarmed while he is driving those that 
are in the pipe. These shootings, which are ten in 
number, are about four yards in length, and about 
six feet high. From the end of the last shooting a 
person cannot see the lake, owing to the bend of the 
pipes, and there is then no further occasion for 
shelter. Were it not for these shootings, the fowl 
that remain about the mouth of the pipe would be 
alarmed if the person driving the fowl already under 
the net should be exposed, and would become so 
shy as entirely to forsake the place. The first thing 
that the decoy-man does when he approaches the 
pipe is to take a piece of lighted turf, or peat, and 
hold it near his mouth, to prevent the birds fioni 
smelling him. He is attended by a dog, trained for 
the purpose of rendering him assistance. He walks 
very silently about half-way up the shootings, where 
a small piece of wood is thrust through the reed- 
fence, which makes an aperture just large enough 
to enable him to see if any fowl are in ; if not, he 
walks forward to see if any are about the entrance 
of the pipe. If there are, he stops and makes amo- 
tion to his dog, and gives him u. piece of cheese, or 
something else, to eat; and, having received this, 
the animal goes directly to a hole through the reed- 
fence, and the birds immediately fly oft' the bank, 
into the water. The dog returns along the bank 
betvveen the reed-fences, and comes out to his mas- 
ter at another hole. The man then gives him 
something to leward and encourage him, and the 
animal repeats his rounds until the birds are attracted 
by his motions, and follow him into the mouth of 
the pipe. This operation is called "working" 
them. The man now retreats farther back, working 
the dog at different holes until the ducks are suf- 
ficiently tmder the net. He then commands his 
dog to lie down behind the fence, and going him- 
self forward to the end of the pipe next the lake, he 
takes oft' his hat and gives it a wave between the 
shootings. All the birds that are under the net can 
then .see him; but none that are in the lake can. 
The former fly forward, and the man then runs (o 
the next shooting and waves his hat, and so on, 
driving them along until they come to the tunnel- 
net, into which they creep. When they are all in, 
the man gives the net a twist, so as to prevent them 
fiom getting back. He then takes the net oft' from 
the end of the pipe, and faking out, one by one, the 
ducks that are in it, dislocates their necks. This is 
the scene represented in Fig. 19G2. The net is 
afterwards hung on again for the repetition of the 
process; and in this manner five or six dozen have 
sometimes been taken at one drift. When the wind 
blows directly in or out of the pipes, the fowl seldom 
work well, especially when it blows into the pipe. 
The reason of this is, that the ducks always prefer 
swimming against the wind, otherwise tlie wind 
blowing from behind catches and ruflles their 
feathers. If many pipes are made in the same 
lake, they are so constructed as to suit dift'erent 
winds, and are worked accordingly. The better 
to entice tl;e fowl into the pipe, hemp-seed is 
occasionally strewn on the water. Tlie season 
allowed by Act of Parliament for taking ducks in 

a 2 




IWJ.— CM^wt of Ancirat Egj-ptuins fur Ulrd-ratching. 



Iftii.— &howll«r. 




19}8.-«iidv«ll. 





! 



1936^BmorSIioveUer. 




1957.— Bill of Malacorhyncbus. 



19C3.— Ancient Egypiiiim Bird-catching IntheManbet 



44 




]967. — Common Teals 



\K>i — Pintniled Duck. 




19«2.— Wild Duck Decoy, Lincolnshire. 





1970.— Head and Foot of Sheldrake. 





19C5.— Bill of Blue-winged Teal. 




IKS—- Blue-winged Teal. 



1971.— M'idjfeous. 



45 



46 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Ducks. 



this way is from the latter end of October until 
February. 

Wilhisjhby slates that formerly before the young 
ducks looU fli!;ht, or while the old ones were in 
moult ami uniiblc to flv, they were driven by men 
in boats furnished with long poles, with which tliey 
splashed the water, between lon^ nets stretched 
vertically across the pools in the shape of two sides 
of a triaiisle, into lesser nets placed at the point, 
and in this way he says that four thousand were 
taken at one drive in Deepins: Fen ; and Latham 
has recorded an instance in which two thousand six 
hnndred anil forty-six were taken in two days nvar 
Spahlin^, in Lincolnshire ; but these practices, being 
considered injurious, were prohibited by statute in 
the reign of George II. 

Fi;;. 1DIJ3 is the copy of an Egyptian painting, in 
the Britisli Museum, representing a fowler in a boat 
on the niarehes or flooded grounds, evidently engaged 
in the capture of wild-fowl, apparently by the decoy 
plan, in which he is assisted by trained birds, and, 
strange to say, by a cat, which is dehneated in the 
act of seizing a bird, while holding down another 
which she has already caught. As the jjicture is 
only a fragment, a complete detailed explanation is 
not to be deduced from it. 

Fig. 19G4 represents an Egyptian attending to a 
baited clapnet, into which a brace of wild dncks 
are winging their way, and which is doubtless so 
constructed as to enclose them when they alight. 
These relics of antitjuity are interesting, as affording 
an insight not only mto the habits and practices of a 
people of remote ages, but also into the zoological 
productions of their country, and thereby enabling 
us to compare them with those of the present day. 
We may observe, en jxissaiU, that the Egyptians 
represented birds and mammalia with singular 
fidelity, in comparison with their delineations of the 
human figure. 

1965. — The Blue-Winged Teal 

(Cffonnpfeius discors, Eyton). Anas discors, Linn. 
This species is a native of the northern regions of 
America, and in eastern Europe and Asia is repre- 
sented by a distinct species (C. Circia, Ejtou ; Anas 
Querquedula, Linn.). 

The blue-winged teal appears in September along 
the shores of the Delaware in crowded flocks, which 
sit on the mud close to the waters edge, so that 
many are killed by the gunner at a single discharge. 
Their flesh is excellent, as they feed chiefly on the 
seeds of reeds or wild cats, and alter a short residence 
in favourable localities become very fat. When the 
frost begins to set in, they proceed southwards, being 
vei-y susceptible of cold. They abound dining the 
winter in the inundated rice-iields of the Southern 
States, where, as Wilson informs us, vast numbers 
are taken in traps placed on small dry eminences 
that here and there arise above the water. These 
places are strewed with rice, and (he birds are 
caught alive. In the month of April flocks of the 
blue-winged teal p.iss through Pennsylvania for the 
noifh, but make little stay at lliat season. 

In the male the forehead and fop of the head are 
black ; a large crescent of white extends on each 
side from the eye to the throat ; the rest of the head 
and half the neck dark slate-colour, richly glossed 
with green and violet ; remainder of the neck and i 
breast dusky back thickly marked with semicircles ! 
of brownish white intersecting each other; under | 
parts pale brown, barred with narrow dusky lines ; 
the sides spotted with oval dusky marks; the flanks 
waved with large semicircles of pale brown ; under i 
tail-coverts back ; black deep brownish black, each 
feather waved with brownish white ; lesser wing- 
coverts bright light blue ; primaries brown ; secon- 
danes black ; speculum rich green; (ertials edired 
with black or light blue, and streaked down the 
middle with white; feet yellow; bill dark slate- 
c3loiir. Length fourteen inches. In the female 
the head and neck are of a dull dusky slate-colour ; 
the hind head whitish ; and the general colouring is 
less pure and definite. ° 

Fig. lJiG6 represents the Bill of the blue-winged 
Teal, which approaches in form to that of the 
.jnallard. 

1007. — The Commox Teal 
i Querquedula Crecca). Sarcelle, Petite Sarcelle 
Cercelle, Cercerelle of the French; Cercedula' 
Cercevolo, Scavolo, Saitclla, and Anitrella of the 
Italians ; Spiegel Entlein and Kriekente of the 
Germans^ Cor Hvvyad and Brach Hwyad of the 
ancient British. 

This beautiful little duck, which is too well known 
to require a detailed description, is widely spread 
over Euroiie and Asia. It is (bund in India, China, 
and Japan: it vi.-ils North Africa; and is common 
in Germany, Holland, Fia;Ke, and Italy. It breeds 
^n Norway, Sweden Lapland, and Iceland ; nor must 
«he British Islands be excluded, for althoui^h there 
are flocks of these birds which arrive in cur'raarshes 
from the north about the end of September and 



return thither again in spring, still we have ourown 
indigenous birds, which continue permanent, breed- 
ing and rearing their broods. Cumberiand, North- 
umberland, Norfolk, the borders offomeof the lakes 
in Wales, are known to afford suitable localities, 
which they regularly tenant ; a few breed in Komney 
Marsh ; in Ireland some are also resident throughout 
the year. The nest of this species is formed of 
decaying vegetable matters, with a lining of down 
and feathere ; it is placed amidst the long rushy 
heriiage about the edges of lakes, or in the bogty 
paits of the upland moors. The eggs, from eight to 
ten ()r twelve in number, are of a cream white. 

The flight of the teal is wonderfully rapid, and 
when the bird is flushed the sportsman must be on 
the alert, otherwise it will be beyond range of shot 
ere he diaws his trigger. Night is the feeding-time 
ot this species; during the day it reposes upon the 
water, or sits shrouded amidst the herbage of the 
bank with the head crouched between the shoulders, 
or with the bill under the scapulars: immediately 
after sunset it wings its way to its usual feeding- 
ground ; aquatic planfs and their seeds, grain, fresh- 
water mollusks, insects and their lai-vae, constitute its 
diet. For the sake of its beauty the teal is often kept 
on ornamental sheets of water, and becomes very tame 
and familiar ; those in the Zoological Gardens have 
for several years past bred annually. Of all our 
water-fowl this is the most delicate for the table, and, 
as Willugliby remarks, '■ doth deservedly challenge 
the first place among those of its kind." Accord- 
ingly we find it recorded among the abundance of 
good things composing the lordly banquets of the 
olden time. 

1968. — Thk PlNTAILED DUCIC 

{Bnfila cau(lacuta). Anas C'audacuta, Ray ; Anas 
acuta, Linn. ; Anas longicauda, Brisson : Querque- 
dula acuta, Selby ; le Canard a longue queue on 
Pilet of the French ; Anitra codilanza and Aiiitra 
di coda lunga of the Italians ; Speissente and Fasan- 
ente of the Germans; Hwyad gynffonfain of the 
ancient British. 

Fig. 1909 represents the Bill of the Pinfailed Duck, 
in which the laminae are only moderately developed, 
w'hile the elevation at the base exceeds the bre.-idth. 
The bulla of the windpipe is of the size of a small 
hazel-nut. The pintailed duck is a native of the 
northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, breed- 
ing in the high latitudes, whence on the approach 
of winter it wings its way southwards, to return again 
in spring. It visits Holland, France, and Germany 
in great numbers, as well as the British Islands, the 
fens of Lincolnshire, Norfolk, &c., being its princi- 
pal places of resort. It is a shy and wary bird, and 
one of the first to give the alarm on the approach 
of the cunner. Contrary to the statement of Mon- 
tagu, Mr. Selby asserts, from long personal observa- 
tion, that it is of rare occurrence in the north of 
England and the south of Scotland, and that he has 
reason to believe that in the north of Scotland and 
the adjacent islands it is equally uncommon, the 
long-tailed duck (Harelda glacialis), which in winter 
frequents the bays of the Orkneys and other groups 
of islands in great abundance, having been mistaken 
for it. 

This species is easily domesticated, but seldom 
breeds in confinement; yet hybrids between it and 
other ducks have occasionally been produced. 

Mr. Selby observes that the season of courtship 
is indicated by the male suddenly laising him.^elf 
upright in the water, and bringing his bill close to 
his breast, atthe same time uttering a low soli note ; 
this gesticulation being often followed by a jerk of 
the hinder part of the body, which is then also 
throw above the water. We may add that some- 
what similar gesticulations are common to the mal- 
lard and other species. 

The pintailed duck is a bird of graceful propor- 
tions, with a slender neck and elongated tail, and, 
as is the case with the mallard and several others, 
as the teal and wigcon, the plumage of the male 
after the breeding-season undergoes a remarkable 
change of colour, and a.-^similates to that of the fe- 
male. 

In the male, in full plumage, the head and throat 
are dark hair biown, the lower part of the neck, and 
two steaks running up to the hmd part of the head, 
the breast, and under parls, white. Back of the 
neck deep brov.n. Flanks and thighs with fine 
transverse black lines. Under fail-coverts velvet 
black. Back marked with alternate wavy lines of 
black and greyish uliite. Siapulais black ; teitials 
long, acuminate, and blajk, with yellowish white 
margins. Lesser wing-cuveits deep i;muke-grey. 
Speculum blackish green, with a bronzed leflexion, 
bordered below by white. Quills brown. Two 
middle tail-leathers elongated, acuminate, and black, 
the re=t brown margined with white. Bill black. 
Legs blackish grey. 

1970. — The Sheldrake 
(Ihdonui Vvlpanser), Head and Foot. Anas Ta- 



ll dorna, Linn. ; la Tadorne, Buifon ; Brandente, 
I' Beclislein; Volpoca of Savi ; Hwyad yr eithin 
and Hwyad fruitli of the ancient British. 

The Sheldrake is a native of northern Europe 
and Asia, and occurs in Jap.ui. We may enume- 
rate it among the indigenous biids of cuir islands, as 
it breeds with us. and may be seen at nil seasons 
upon various paits of the coast, and on the mud- 
banks of our tidal rivers, but rarely far inland; their 
numbers, however, are great ly increased in the winter 
by accessions from the north, which return to their 
summer haunts in March. This species selects rabbit- 
warrens along the coast as its breeding-place, and 
taking up a deserted burrow, there mak.'s a nest of 
dried grass, lined with soil down plucked from its 
own breast. The nest is sometimes ten or twelve 
feet from the entrance; but where there are no 
burrows accessible, it is placed in a fissure of the 
rock or bank ; the eggs are ten or twelve in number, 
and of a pure white. The parents are very solicitous 
respecting their young. During the period of in- 
cubation (thirty days) the male keeps watch, and 
takes the place of the female when she leaves the 
nest for food. When the young are hatched, (hey 
are conducted or carried in the bill of their parents 
to the sea, vvhcre they swim about in some sheltered 
spot, seldom leaving the water till fully fledged. 
When the nest or young are in danger, the old birds 
show great address in decoying the intruder to a 
distance, feigning lameness, and fluttering along the 
ground before him ; hence the natives of the Orkneys 
call this bird the sly goose. The food of the prcienc 
species consists of sea-weed, shelled mollusks, small 
Crustacea, the spawn and fry of fishes, and also 
grain. The flesh is rank and bad. From its great 
beauty the sheldrake is often kept tame as an orna- 
mental appendage to lakes and 'sheets of water i:i 
parks or gardens, and numbers of the young are 
annually captured for sale. Selby status that in 
confinement this species seldom breeds ; one in- 
stance came under his own observation, and another 
is recorded by Montagu. We may here observe 
that the sheldiake has bred both in the gardens of 
the Horticultural Society and ia those of the Zoo- 
logical Society. 

The sheldrake is distinguished from the ducks of 
other genera by the form of its bill, which is com- 
paratively short, high at the base, depressed in the 
middle, with the tip flattened and turning upward-, 
and the nail abruptly curvel. The legs are long, 
and placed in the centre of the body, whence tiie 
birds run on shore wiili considerable ease and quick- 
ness. There is a fleshy knot on the base of the 
upper mandible in the male, which increases on the 
approach of the pairing-season, and acquires a 
beautiful crimson hue. The trachea of the male is 
furnished at the lower larynx with two thin bulliv, 
of which that on the right side is the largest. The 
head and neck are greenish black; the lower jiait 
of the p.eck, wing-coverts, back, sides, rump, and 
base of tail, pure white. Scapulars, a large band 
girding the middle of the belly, quills and extremity 
of caudal feathers deep black ; a large bay-coloured 
gorget adorns the breast. Speculum, or beauty-.tpot 
of the wings, purple green. Feet flesh-coloured. 
The female is less than the male, and her colours 
are moie obscure. 

1971. — The Wigeon, or Widgeon 

(Maieca Penelope). Canard Siffleurof the French • 
Anistra fischiarola, Anatra niarigiana, and Fischioua 
of the Italians; Pfeilente of the Germans; Chwiw 
of the ancient British. 

The Wigcon is a native of the northern regions 
of Europe and Asia, breeding in Lapland, Sweden, 
Norway, &c., whence on the approach of winter 
vast flocks wing their way southwards, visiting 
Holland, Germany, France, Spain, and Italy. It 
occurs in the neighbourhood of the Caucasus, in 
India, and .Japan. In the British Islands it arrives 
about the beginning of October, visiting our inland 
marshes, bays, and the mouths of rivois, and gnat 
numbers are annually taken in decoy.^j, lor the sake 
of the flesh, which is very excellent, iis a vegetable 
diet (aquatic plants, sea-weeds, and ordinary grass) 
forms lhechiefsupi)ort of this species. Dr. Itichard- 
son in a note gives the following interesting par- 
ticulars, which he derived Irom Skeltou, the intelli- 
gent keeper of a decoy in Lincolnshire: — "With 
respect to food, the mallard, pintail, and teal lie- 
queiit lichfloodid ]a.iuU, fit illciiiig wi[h their titbs 
111 the soil, ar.d .'^uckiiig out all its stioicjtli, but the 
wigeon feeds (juite differently, behiij an on:ci:iiii; 
foul to graze and a btiumjc eater of tjrass. It is 
especially fond of flutter grass (glyceria), which it 
crops on the surface, but it likev.ise eats many other 
heibs." It is i)artial to willow-weed seeds (epilo- 
bium), as aie also the mallard, teal, and pintail, 
piclVrriiig them to oats; and it leeds by day, but is 
also nocturnal in its habits. The wigeon has been 
known to breed in Sutheriandshirc ; the nest is 
placed among low bushes, ieed.s or rushes near 
Iresh Aater, and is composed of vegetable materials 



Ducks.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



47 



in a stata of decay, lined with waim down plucked 
from the ])arent"s body. Tiie eggs arc cream co- 
loured. Tiie flocks of this species, while on the 
wing, utter during tlieir flight a peculiar wliistling 
call-note, by which the fowler, during the night, 
easily distinguishes them. From this call the 
bird in some places has received the name of 
V\'hew-duck. Early in March the flocks begin their 
polar migration, and by the month of April our 
morasses and shores are deserted. The wigeou is t;)0 
well known to need a detailed description. Fig. 
1971* represents the Bill of this species. 

1072. — The American Wigeo.v 

(Mareca Amcricnna). This species, which breeds 
in the liish noitliern latitudes of America, is com- 
mon in winter in the United S;ates, and particularly 
so in Caroiin.i, where it IVeciucnts the plantations of 
rice. It visits Guiana and St. Doniiugo. A.ccording 
to Wilson, the American wigeou is e-xtremely fond 
of the teni.'er roofs of that particular species of 
aquatic plant on which the Ciuvas-back Duck, so 
abundant in L'liesapeak Bay, habitually feeds ; hence 
the wigjon, as it never dives, is the constant attend- 
ant of the canvas-!)3ck, and is always on the watch 
for its rising fiom the deep with the tempting morsel 
in its bill, which the wigeon immediately snatches 
a.vay. On this account the canvas-back and 
wigeons, or, as they are called round the bay, Bald- 
pales, live in a state of perpetual contention. 

As is the ca.ic witli our European species, the 
present is remarkable fur its whistling call as it 
vrings its way by night, and this call is frequently 
imitated as a means of enticing the birds within 
gun-shot. 

1973, 1974.— The Summer Dues 

{Dendronessa Sponsa). The Wood-duck of Audu- 
bon. 

This beautiful species is extensively spread over 
the whole of the United States of America, and is 
equally common in Mexico and several of the West 
India Islands. Its favourite haunts are fecluded 
sheets of water embo^-omcd in the woods, mill-dams, 
and ponds, the shore of the sea being seldom or 
never visited. In the warmer latitudes it is a per- 
iiiancnt resident, but in the more northern distiicls 
is a bird of passage, retreating southwards as winter 
comes on, and returning in the sprini;. In the 
Jliddle States tlie Summer duck breeds about thj 
heginning of April ; in the Northern States, seldom 
before the eaily part of June ; while in the Southern 
States it piirs about the 1st of March or a week 
earlier. Unlike the duck tribe generally, this spe- 
cies never makes a nest on the ground, but chooses 
the deep hole which the great ivory-billed wood- 
pecker has made in a tree, or the deserted retreat of 
some squirrel, or the hollow left by the breaking oif 
< f some large limb; the tree chosen usually over- 
hangs the water or swamp, or is at no great distance 
from if. The nest is composed of feathers and 
diied herbage, with a little down, the latter mostly 
plucked from the breast of the female. The eggs 
varv from six to fifteen in number, and are smooth, 
polished, and of a colour between buff and pale 
gieeii. As is the case with our wild duck, the male 
deserts the female when she commences the task 
of incubation, and joins with others of his own sex, 
forminir flocks, which in the autumn are augmented 
by the females and young of the year, all keeping 
together till the spring pairing-lime. When the 
breedii'.g-place overhangs the water, the young 
ducks, soon after being hatched, scramble to the 
mouth of the hole, and spreading their little wings 
and feet, drop into their favourite element, where 
the female diligently attends them : if, however, the 
tree should be at some distance from the water, the 
female carries them to it one by one in her bill, 
holding them so as not to injure their yet tender 
frame. The same retreat is occupied year after 
year by the same pair, and instances have been 
known of their frequenting a favourite tree after the 
colonist had occupied the land around it, and the 
noise of the sa.v and the hammer, and the voices of 
busy workmen resounded at its foot ; yet the Sum- 
mer duck is naturally a shy bi;d, and usually avoids 
the presence of man, whom it has learned to fear. 
The food of this species consists of acorns, grain, the 
bct'ds of plants, insects, &c. 

In captivity the Summer duck is very tame, and, 
we doubt not, might be easily naturalized as a do- 
mestic tenant of our homesteads. It breeds freely 
in the Zoological Gardens. As an ornament to our 
sheets of water it has no superior. 

The colouiing of the male is as follows: — Head 
above and space between the eye and bill glossy 
dark green ; cheeks and a large patch on the sides 
cf the throat purple, with blue reflexions; pendant 
cccipital crest of green and auricula puiple marked 
wi'h two narrow white lines, one of them terminating 
behind the eye, the other extending over the eye to 
tha bill ; sides of the n?ck purplish red, changing on 
the front of the ntck and sides of the breast to 



brown, and there spotted with white. Scapulars, 
wings, and tail exhibiting a play of duck green, 
purple, blue, and velvet black colours; interscapu- 
lais, posterior jKut of the back, rump, and upper 
tail-coverts blackish green and jiurple ; several of 
the lateral eovei Is reddish orange ; a hair-like, splen- 
dent, reddish purple tuft on each side of (he rump ; 
the under coverts brown. Chin, throat, a collar 
round tlie neck, a crescentic bar on the ears, the 
middle of the breast, and whole of the abdomen 
v.hite. Flanks yellowish grey, finely undulated 
with black; the tips of the long feathers and also 
those on the shoulder broadly barred with white and 
black. Inner wing-coverts white, barred with brown. 
Almost all the coloured plumage sliows a play of 
colours with metallic lustre. Bill red; a space be- 
tw-een the nostrils, its tip, margins, and lower man- 
dible black. Legs orange-coloured. Length nine- 
teen inches. 

The plumage of the female is much plainer than 
that of her mate, being chiefly coloured with drab 
and glossy brown, the fine pencillings of the sides 
being wanting. Fig. 1975 represents the Bill of the 
Summer Duck. 

197G. — The IMandarin Duck 

{Dendroncssa galericulatii): Een-Yeong ,of the 
Chinese, according to Mr. G. Bennett. 

Like the Summer duck of America, this is an 
arboreal bird, roosting in high trees. It is a native 
of China, and is often seen well represented in 
Chinese paintings. The Mandarin duck appears to 
mate for life ; at all events, these birds are regarded 
by the Chinese as emblems of conjugal fideliiy, and 
are usually carried about in their marriage proces- 
sions. 

The male is extremely beautiful, and remarkable 

for the long silky feathers of the head and neck, 

and the broad feathers which rise vertically from 

j the wings. During four months of the year, how- 

1 ever, that is, from May to August, the male changes 

! his splendid dress, and bears a close resemblance to 

the unadorned female. 

This species has bred in the Zoological Gardens, 
and, like its congener the Summer duck, might 
doubtless be naturalized. 

We shall now pass to the marine or diving ducks, 
which live almost exclusively in the sea, and dive 
deep for their food. The plumage is close and thick ; 
the limbs placed far back ; the neck is thick and 
short; the wings short; and diving, rather than 
flight, is resorted to as a security Irom danger. 

1977, 1978, 1979.— The Eider-Duck 

(Somatena moUissima). Oie a duvet, ou Eider of 
the French; Eiterente of the Germans; Ilwyad 
fwythblu of the ancient British ; St. Cuthberfs Duck, 
Great black-and-white Duck, Dunton Duck, &c. 
Fig. 1978, the Female. 

In the genus Sumateria the bill is small, with the 
base elevated, and extending up the forehead, w here 
a central narrow line of feathers divides it. Apex 
narrow ; sides with coarse wide laminations ; nostrils 
small, oval ; hind-toe with a lobated membrane. Fig. 
1980 represents the Bill of llie Eider-duck. 

It is from this bird, and an allied species, the King- 
Eider, that the down so celebrated for warmth and 
lightness is procured. The eider-duck is oceanic in 
its habits, tenanting the northern seas, and is very 
abundant on the shores of Iceland, Greenland, Lap- 
land, Spitzbergen, and those of Baffin's and Hudson's 
Bays. It is called Mittek by the Greenlanders. It 
is only an accidental visitor to our southern coasts, 
but is common in the Hebrides, where it annually 
breeds, as also on the Earn Islands on the Northum- 
brian coast. In Iceland and Norway, the districts 
to which this bird resorts are regarded as valuable 
property, and strictly preserved ; but in Labrador, 
where' tii • eider is abundant, the egg-gatherers kill it 
in great niuubers, from mere wantonness, but neglect 
the down. The Greenlanders chase the cider for 
the sake both of the flesh and skin; and also rob 
the nests of the down and the eggs, the latter being 
esteemed excellent food. It is the down with which 
the female lines her nest that is so valuable; that 
taken from the dead bird being of very inferior 
quality. The mode in which the down is collected 
in Iceland and Norway, where every one is anxious 
to have an eider-estate, is as follows : — The female 
is suffered to lay her five or six eggs, which are 
placed in a nest constructed of marine plants, with 
the warm elastic material in question as a lining : 
these eggs and the down are taken; she then relines 
her nest, and lays a second time : the eggs and down 
are again abstracted. Unable to supply more down, 
the male now strips his breast, and lurnishes a sup- 
ply, known by its pale colour: on this the female 
lays two or three eggs, which she is suffered to hatch 
unmolested, for were these to be taken the bereaved 
bird would utterly forsake the inhospitable place, 
and return no more. The quantity afforded by 
a single female is, when cleaned, about half a 
pound. 



Tlie eider-duck is a bird of recluse habits, disliking 
interruption, though not particularly timid. Hence 
it generally chooses for its breeding-hamit low flat 
islands along the coast, and narrow slips of land 
projecting into the sea; here multitudes assemble 
during the summer, in order to rear their broods, 
and aie at that time very tame. 

Sir George Mackenzie, during his travels in Ice- 
land, had an opportunity, on the 8th .lune, afVidoe, 
of observing the eider-ducks, at all other limes of 
the year perfectly wild, assembled for the great 
work of incubation. The boat, in its approach to 
the shore, passed multitudes of these buds, which 
hardly moved out of the way ; and, between the 
landing-place and the governor's house, it required 
some caution to avoid treading on the nests, while 
the drakes were walking about, even more familiar 
than common ducks, and uttering a sound which 
was like the cooing of doves. The ducks were 
sitting on their nests all round iTie house, on the 
garden wall, on the roofs, nay even in the inside of 
ttie houses and in the chapel. Those wliich had not 
been long on the nest generally left it when they 
were approached ; but those that had more than 
one or two eggs sat perfectly quiet and suftercd the 
party to touch them, though they sometimes gently 
repelled the intrusive hand with their bills. But, if 
a drake happen to be near his mate when thus 
visited, he becomes extremely agitated. He passes 
to and fro between her and the suspicious object, 
raising his head and cooing. 

The food of the eider-duck consists of small 
Crustacea, mussels, and other shell fish, and various 
marine animals, in ([uest of which it dives with griat 
address. The male and female differ greatly in 
colouring. In the male, on each side of the head 
and above the eyes, is a large band of black feathers ; 
the sides of the throat and back of the neck are of a 
delicate sea-green; the neck is white, with a tinge 
of yellow passing into buff on the breast ; back and 
shoulders white ; quill-feathers, tail, and under parts 
black. The female has the plumage universally of 
a brownish red, barred transversely with black ; bill 
oil-green ; legs greenish yellow. 

1981.— The Surf-Duck 

(Oideiiiit peispicillala). Surf-Scoter, Black Duck, of 
Edwards ; Macreuse a large bee ou Canard Marchand 
of the French. 

In the genus Oidemia the bill is broad with 
dilated margins and coarse lamellilorin teeth; it 
rises abruptly above the nostrils ; the forehead 
encroaches in a point on the upper mandible. Fig. 
1982 represents the Bill of the Surf-Duck. 

Thissjjecies is common and abundant at Hudson's 
and Baffin's Bays, and maybe regaiiled rather as an 
American than a European species, its visits to the 
Orkneys and the European seas being merely acci- 
dental. It was seen at Nootka Sound by Captain 
Cook. The Prince of Canino notes it as very 
abundant in the sea in the neighbourhood of the 
shore at Philadelphia. During the summer the 
surf-duck haunts shallow estuaries, bays, and bars, 
where it feeds upon shell-fish, and dives with re- 
markable vigour in the midst of the heavy surf. It 
breeds, among other places, on the shores of Hud- 
son's Bay, and in Labrador, making a lust of grass, 
and lining it with down. The eggs are four or five 
in number, of a white colour. 

The winter migrations of this species extend to 
Florida, but numbers remain during the cold season 
along the shores and in the open bays cf the United 
States. The northward return takes place early in 
May. The male is velvet black, with a reddish 
reflexion; throat brownish; a broad wh.ite band 
between the eyes, and a triangular patch of the 
same on the nape ; bill reddish orange, the nail 
paler; a square black spot on the lateral piotube- 
rance ; legs orange; webs brown; bill much like 
that of the Velvet Scoter (Oidemia fnsca), but the 
lateral protuberances are naked and horny, and the 
central one is feathered farther down. Tiie laminae 
are distant, and the lower ones particularly promi- 
nent, with cutting edges. As inlhe other Oidemia?, 
the bill and ibrehead are inflated, causing the head 
to appear lengthened and the crown depressed. The 
nostrils are rather large, and nearer to the point 
than to the rictus. lA'ugth twenty-four inches. 
(Dr. Richardson, from a bird killed at Fort Franklin.) 
Female and Young : — Black ashy brown wherever 
the male is deep black. Head and neck lighter; 
frontal band and great angular space upon the nape 
indicated by very bright ashy brown. Lateral pro- 
luberauces of the bill but little developed, and the 
whole bill of an ashy yellowish colour. Feet and 
toes brown ; webs black. (Temniinck.) Dr. Richard- 
son observes that the under plumage in particular is 
paler; that the back and wing-coverts are narrowly 
edged with grey; that the breast, flanks, and eai-s 
have some whitish edgings ; that the bill is black, its 
base not so much inflated; and that the nostrilsare 
smaller than in the male. 




1976.— MuDduin Duck 



1»T3.— Siimmtt Euck. 




19T5.— Bill orSomincr Duck. 





IMC— Mill of EldfrDLck 




1977.— M«le Eidfr-Duok. 




1974. — Slimmer Duck. 




1978.— Female Kider Duck. 





19ii2.— i;illorSurf-Cuck. 





1971*.— Bill of WiJgTOn. 



i 




1931.— Surf-Duck. 



84 



19:9-Ei,l<.r-Duck. 








19S4.— Beak of Canv«s-back Dnck. 



1987— Bill of Spirit-Duck. 



1991.— KU of Ung-tailed Duck. 




1985.— Spirit-Dock: Male. 




1988.— Long-Uiled Duck: Male. 








1986.— Spirit-Duck: Female. 



1989.— Long-Uiled Duck : Female. 







198:*.— CtnvaA-back Duck, 






No. 57. — ^o'" " 







1 992.— Steamer-Duck. 




[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



1990 Long-tailed Duck Male. 

49 



50 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Ducks. 



1983.— The Canvas-back Duck 
'Pvhmda Valisnena). In the genus Fuligula the 
bill IS flat, broad, long, with only a slight elevation 
at the ba»e ; the nostnis are suboval ; the feet are 
large; the hind toe broadly lobated. Fig. 1984 re- 
presents the beak of the Canvas-back. 

The Canvas-back duck, in many points, both of 
form and colouring, closely approaches our well- 
known Pochard (Fuligula ferina). but is considerably 
superior in size. It is a species peculiar to America, 
breeding from the 50th parallel of N. latitude to 
the most northern limits of the fur countries. When 
the season of incubation is over, and the winter 
sets in, the Canvas-back in large flocks migrates 
southwards, appearing on the coasts of the United 
States about the middle of October. A few de- 
scend to the Hudson and Delaware, but the great 
body of these birds resort, according to Wilson, to 
the numerous rivers belonging to, and in the neigh- 
bourhood of, Chesapeake Bay, particularly the .Sus- 
quehannah, the Patapsco, Potomac, and James 
nvers. It is probable that they extend their migra- 
tion to the Gulf of Mexico ; they are said to be 
common at the mouth of the nver Neuse, near 
Newbern. It is seldom that these birds advance 
high up the rivers, but resort to a particular part of 
tide water, where the long subaquatic valisnena 
grows in immense quantities, the white tender root 
of which furnishes them with the most acceptable 
food. For this they dive and tear up the plants, 
which become drilled into matted rows by the 
wind ; the tender portions near the root of the slender 
marine vegetables, called eel-grasses (Zostera ma- 
rina and Ruppiamaritima), are also eagerly devoured, 
as well as seeds and grain, which are oflen scattered 
over the surface of the water near the coast, from 
wrecks. Wherever their favourite vegetables 
abound, these birds assemble, and sometimes in 
such multitudes as to cover acres of the river; the 
noise of their wings when they rise disturbed by the 
gunner resembling the roar of thunder. They are 
extremely shy, and can only be approached by 
stratagem; yet are they the object of the sports- 
man's unceasing persecution, for of all the duck 
tribe, if we may believe those who ought to know, 
none can at all compare with them in the exquisite 
flavour of their flesh. On their first arrival along 
the shores of the United States they are lean, biit 
in a short time they become very tat, and then is 
the flesh superlative. The neck of the Canvas- 
back, in the male, is of a rich chestnut, deepening 
into black on the upper part of the back and breast, 
where it abruptly terminates: the rest of the back 
is white, beautifully pencilled with fine transverse 
wavy lines of dusl<y black ; the breast and under 
surface are white, pencilled in the same manner, 
but more obscurely ; quill-feathers pale slate, dusky 
tow.irds the tips ; tail short and greyish brown. 
Bill black, legs pale ash ; length two feet. 

In the female, the general plumage is umber 
brown varied with rufous; the back being finely 
undulated with greyish white. 

1985, 1986.— The Spirit-Duck 

(Oangula albeola). Male and Female. The Buffel 
Duck of Pennant ; the Buffel s-head Duck of Catesby ; 
the liuff'el-headed Duck of Wilson ; the Little Black- 
and-White Duck of Edwards. 

In the genus Clangula the bill is narrow, some- 
what elevated at the base, contracted towards the 
tip, with the nostrils inclining to oval, and nearly in 
the middle of the upper mandible. Though many 
of the birds of this genus frequent the sea, the species 
generally occur in rivers and lakes, as is the case 
with the Golden Eye (Clangula vulgaris), which 
breeds in the arctic circle, and visits the larger 
rivers and lakes of our island, and the Continent 
generally, in the winter. The same observation 
applies to the beautiful Harlequin Duck ;C. his- 
trionica), and to the present species, both natives of 
America. Fig. 1987 represents the Bill of Clangula 
albeola. 

The Spirit-duck, called Wakaisheeweesheep, Waw- 
haisheep, and Wappano-sheep by the Cree and 
Chippeway Indians, is common in the winter to the 
sea-shore, lakes, and rivers of the United States, 
where it is celebrated for its remarkable expertness 
in diving. So suddenly does it disappear, and with 
such address does it conceal itself, alter vanishing 
under the water, that it has obtained the names of 
Conjuror and Spirit-duck; magic, as it were, ap- 
pearing in its movements. Hence it is not often 
nit, and even if it be, and the shot does not kill it 
outright, it instantly dives, and thus manages to 
evade its pursuer. The food of this species consists 
of small shell-fish, shrimps, sea-weeds, laver (Ulva 
lactuca), &c., for which it dives in the bays along 
the coast, and the saline marshes. Its flesh, though 
fat, is not in much esteem. During the winter, this 
bird is usually seen in pairs, or small companies, 
but towards March it assembles in flocks, which 
^ leave for the high regions about the middle of April. 



They are said to breed about Hudson's Bay. where 
they arrive in June; frequenting the Severn river, 
and making their nests in hollow trees in woods ad- 
jacent to water. The male is a very beautiful bird. 
The forehead, region of the bill, nuchal crest, and 
upper sides of the neck rich duck green, blending 
with the resplendent auricula purple of the top of 
the head and throat. Broad band from the eye to 
the tip of the occipital crest, lower half of tlie 
neck, the shoulders, exterior scapulars, interme- 
diate and greater coverts, outer webs of five or 
six secondaries, flanks, and under plumage pure 
white. Back, long scapulars, and tertiaries velvet 
black ; lesser coveits bordering the wing the same, 
edged with white ; primaries and their coverts 
brownish black. Tail-coverts blackish grey; tail 
broccoli brown ; under tail-coverts greyish. Bill 
bluish black. Legs yellowish. In many spring 
specimens the under plumage is ash-grey. Length 
about sixteen inches. 

The female, which is. considerably smaller, has 
the head and back of a dark blackish brown ; the 
fore-part of the back, scapulars, and tertiaries, edged 
with yellowish brown. Fore-part of the neck, sides 
of the breast, and flanks, blackish grey ; breast 
and belly white, glossed with brownish orange. 
White band on the ears and occiput much narrower 
than in the male. The white speculum is less 
perfect, and the whole of the lesser coverts and 
scapulars are unspotted blackish brawn. Bill and 
feet brownish. 

1988, 1989, 1990.— The Lono-tailkd Duck 

(Harelda glacialis). Canard i\ longue queue of the 
French ; Eisente of the Germans ; Swallow-tailed 
Duck of the Hudson's Bay residents ; Hwyad gynftbn 
gwennol of the ancient British. 

In the genus Harelda the bill is very short, high 
at the base, and arched ; the laminae are large, pro- 
minent, and distant; nostrils oblong and neariy 
basal. Fig. 1991 represents the Bill of Harelda 
glacialis. 

This active duck, which emulates the Spirit-duck 
in its wonderful aquatic evolutions is a native of 
the dreary regions of the arctic circle, making along 
the grassy shores a nest of herbage, which it lines 
with fine down from its breast. The eggs are five 
in number, and of a pale greenish grey. After the 
season of incubation, these birds collect in vast 
flocks, and as the cold season advances, migrate 
southwards, but not before the polar seas are tho- 
roughly ice-bound. It visits the shores and lakes 
of the United States, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Ger- 
many, and the islands and lakes of Scotland, but is 
seldom seen on our southern shores. Its flight is 
wonderfully rapid, but not at a great elevation, or 
long protracted ; and its cry is loud and almost in- 
cessant, and when uttered by congregated multi- 
tudes resounds to a considerable distance. 

The male of this species differs considerably from 
the female in plumage, and the livery of summer 
differs from that of winter. 

1992. — The Racehorse, or Steamer-Duck 

{Microptenis brachypterus). Oidemia Patachoni- 
ca, Kiui^ ; Anas brachyptera, Latham ; Racehorse 
of Captain Cook ; Steamer-duck of Captain King. 

This extraordinary duck leads us away from the 
Northern to the Southern hemisphere. It is a na- 
tive of the Falkland Islands, Tiena del Fuego, and 
Patagonia, and from the shortness of its wings is 
incapable of flight ; while, on the other hand, they 
aid it in skimming with extraordmary speed the sur- 
face of the water, and also in diving to the bottom 
of the sea. The limbs are immensely thick and 
powerful, the neck short, and the bill stout, deep at 
the base, but abbreviated. It is described by Cap- 
tain Philip Parker King, R.N., in the Zoological 
Journal. 

It was, says Captain King, at Eagle Bay, beyond 
Cape San Isidro (Point Shut-up of Byron), in the 
Strait of Magalhaens, that "we saw for the first 
time that most remarkable bird the Steamer-duck. 
Before steam-boats were in general use, this bird 
was denominated, from its swiftness in skimncing 
over the surface of the water, the ' racehorse,' a 
name which occurs frequently in Cook's, Byron's, 
and other voyages. It is a gigantic duck, the 
largest I ever met with. It has the lobated hind 
toe, legs placed far backwards, and other charac- 
teristics of the oceanic ducks. The principal pecu- 
liarity of this bird is the shortness and remarkably 
small size of the wings, which, not having sufficient 
power to raise the body, serve only to propel it 
along, rather than through the water, and are used 
like the paddles of a steam-vessel. Aided by these, 
and its strong broad-webbed feet, it moves with 
astonishing velocity. It would not be an exaggera- 
tion to state its speed at from twelve to fifteen miles 
an hour. The peculiar Corui of the wing and the 
short rigid feathers which cover it, together with 
the power this bird possesses of remaining a consi- 
derable time under water, constitute it a striking 



link between the genera Anas and Aptenodytex 
(Penguins). It has been noti'ied by many former 
navigators. The largest we found measured foity 
inches from the extremity of the bil to that of the 
tail, and weighed thirteen pounds : but Captain 
Cook mentions, in his second voyage, that the weight 
of one was twenty-nine pounds. It is very diflicuit 
to kill them, on account of their wariness and thick 
coat of feathers, which is impenetrable by anything 
smaller than swan-shot. The flavour of their flesh 
is so strong and fishy, that at fii'st we killed them 
solely for specimens. Five or six months, however, 
on salt provisions taught many to think such food 
palatable, and the seamen never lost an opportunity 
of eating them. I have preferred these ducks to 
salt beef, but more as a preventive against scurvy 
than from liking their taste. I am averse to alter- 
ing names, particularly in natural history, without 
very good reason ; but in this case I do think the 
name of ' steamer ' much more appropriate and de- 
scriptive of the swift paddling motion of these birds 
than that of ' racehorse.' I believe, too, the name 
of 'steamer' is now generally given to it by those 
who have visited these regions." 

Mr. Darwin, in his notice of the same bird, says 
that it proceeds partly by swimming and partly by 
flapping the surface of the water. "The manner is 
something like that by which the common house- 
duck escapes when pursued by a dog ; but I am 
nearly sure that the steamer moves its wings alter- 
nately, instead of both together, as in other birds. 
These clumsy loggerheaded ducks make such a 
noise and splashing, that the effect is exceedingly 
curious." 

This species feeds on Crustacea and shell-fish, &c. 
The general plumage above is lead-colour, with a 
tinge of grey ; under parts white, speculum or 
beauty spot of wings white ; at the bend a blunt 
spur. Bill yellow with the nail black ; legs dusky 
yellow. Length forty inches; of bill, three inches. 

In the 'Proceeds. Zool. Soc.,' Dec. 14, 1830, a 
second species from the western parts of the Straits 
of Magalhaens (Magellan), is described by Captain 
King, under the title of Micropterus Patachonious. 
It is inferior in size to the preceding. 

We shall now pass from the Ducks to the Geese ; 
of which our ordinary domestic breed is deduced 
from the Greylag f Anser palustris, Flem. ; Anser 
cinereus, Meyer), which was formerly very abundant 
in England, breeding in the fenny counties. We 
have besides the Common Goose, the Chinese Goose, 
(Anser cygno'i'des) which is larger and more swan- 
like in its form than the preceding, having a long 
and slender neck. It is a native of China and other 
parts of Asia, and is said to occur in Africa. It is 
the Oie de Guinee of Buffbn. A third goose, the 
Canada Goose (Anser Canadensis), is not uncom- 
mon in a state of domestication in our island, but 
is kept rather as an ornament to ponds and sheets 
of water, than for the sake of its flesh. In America, 
where it is domesticated, the farmers regard it as 
good and more profitable than the ordinary tame 
goose of Europe. 

1993.— The Canada Goose 

{Anser Canadensis). This species, of which, as we 
have said, there is a tame breed both in Europe and 
America, is a native of the arctic regions of North 
America, whence, in the autumn, vast flocks wing 
their way southwards, spreading over Canada and 
the United States. The autumnal flight, says Wil- 
son, lasts from the middle of August to the middle 
of October, when the frosts begin. No sooner 
do they arrive in Canada and the States, than 
the work of slaughter commences. They run the 
gauntlet, so to speak, for many hundreds of miles, 
through such destructive fires, that by the time they 
have reached the shores of the middle States, their 
numbere are not only greatly reduced, but the sur- 
vivors have become exceedingly shy and watchful 
The English residents at Huclson's Bay depend 
greatly on the supply of Canada Geese for their 
winter provision ; and it is stated that in favourable 
years, as many as three or four thousand have been 
killed and barrelled up; a single native, from the 
ambush of his bough hut, will sometimes kill two 
hundred in a day. Those which are taken when 
the frost begins to set in are preserved in a frozen 
state, with the feathers on, and not salted, as the 
rest; the feathers constitute an article of commerce, 
and are sent to England. The flesh of this species, 
though juicy and excellent, is not equal to that of 
the Snow goose (Anser hyperboreus), which, accord- 
ing to Dr. Richardson, is of first-rate quality; 
consequently thousands of this latter species are 
killed during their southern progress, and kept in a 
frozen state, in holes dug in the ground, and covered 
up with earth. The same mode of preserving them 
is practised also in Siberia. 

About the middle of April the Canada geese re- 
turn northwards, their flight lasting till the middle 
of May. They have been found breeding on the 
coasts of Labrador. On the arrival of the flocks in 



Geese.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



>1 



the fur countries the work of slaughter again com- 
mences, the natives attracting the birds within gun- 
shot range by imitating their call note. "One 
goose," says Dr. Richardson, " when lat weighs about ■ 
nine pounds, and is the daily ration for one of the ' 
company's servants during this season ; it is reckoned j 
equal to two snow geese, or three ducks, or eight | 
pounds of buffalo or moose meat, two pounds of ' 
pemmican, or a pint of maize and four ounces of 
suet. About three weeks alter their first (vernal) 
appearance, the Canada geese disperse, in pairs, 
throughout the country between the 50th and 
67th parallels to breed, retiring at the same time 
from the shores of Hudson's Bay. They are seldom 
or ever seen on the coasts of the Arctic Sea. In 
July, after the young are hatched, the parents moult, 
and vast numbers are killed in the rivers and small 
lakes, when they are unable to fly. When chased 
by a canoe and obliged to dive frequently, they soon 
become fatigued, and make for the shore with the 
intention of hiding themselves, but as. they are not 
fleet they fall an easy prey to their pursuers. In 
the autumn they again assemble in flocks on the 
shores of Hudson's Bay for three weeks or a month 
previous to their departure southwards." 

The food of the present species consists of tender 
aquatic herbage and roots, and also marine plants, 
together with grain and berries. 

The Canada goose has tne head, nearly all the 
neck, the greater quills, rump, and tail black. Back 
and wings brown, with a pale edge to each feather. 
Base of the neck and under plumage white, a few 
feathers before the edge, and a large throat-mark 
white. Bill and feet black. 

1994. — The Bean Goose 

(Anser Segetum, Steph.). Anser ferus, Flem. 

The Bean goose or Small Grey goose must not be 
confounded with the Greylag, the origin of our 
domestic stock, and from which it may be distin- 
guished by Its inferior size, and by the form of 
the bill, which is comparatively shorter, smaller, and 
more compressed towards the end. Its wings reach 
even beyond the tail. Moreover, in the bean goose 
the base of the upper mandible as far as the nos- 
trils and of the lower, together with the nails of 
both, are black, the rest of a reddish flesh-colour 
inclining to orange, whereas the bill of the grey- 
lag is of an orange red, with the nail of a greyish 
white. 

The bean goose is a native of the high northern 
regions, and the range of country within the arctic 
circle ; whence in the autumn it migrates south- 
wards, and is well known as a regular winter visitant 
to our islands, arriving about the beginning of Oc- 
tober. The flocks have their respective feeding 
districts or haunts, to which, as Mr. Selby has satis- 
factorily determined, they invariably return ; their 
flight, except during stormy weather, is generally 
at a great elevation, and extremely rapid. The 
birds fly either in a diagonal line, or form two sides 
of an acute triangle, and during their aerial progress 
maintain an incessant cackle, the voices of the two 
sexes being easily distinguished. During the day, 
the flocks resort to the upland grounds and open 
lands, feeding on the tender wheat, and also upon 
clover and other herbage. In the early part of the 
spring they visit the fields newly sown with beans 
and peas, and greedily devour as much as they find 
scattered about, or can dislodge ; on the approach 
of evening they retire to the water, or to some bar 
of sand, at a little distance from the shore, where 
they have a fiee range of vision all around, and no 
enemy can steal unobserved upon them. They are 
extremely watchful and vigilant, and it is only by 
stratagem that the sportsman can come upon them 
vfithin gunshot. The best plan is to lie in wait for 
them when they make their early morning visit 
to the feeding grounds wliich they habitually fre- 
quent. 

The bean goose is said to breed on some of the 
outermost Western islands in considerable numbers, 
making in the marshy grounds a nest of dried grasses 
and other vegetables ; the eggs are terf or twelve in 
number. 

The bean goose is much more common in our 
island than the greylag, at lea^t in the present day : 
for formerly the greylag was not only numerous, 
but a permanent resident, breeding in the fenny 
counties, from which the process of draining, and 
an increase of population, have almost entirely 
banished it. For the description of a recently de- 
termined species, the Pink-footed goose, closely 
allied to the bean goose, see ' Proceeds. Zool. Soc' 
1839, p. 3. It is the Anser phoenicopus of Mr. 
Bartlett. 

1995, 1996.— The Bernicle Goose 

{Anser Bernicla). The Bernicle, together with a 
closely allied species, the Brent goose (Anser 
Brenta), are both natives of the high northern lati- 
tudes, both of Europe and America, and in autumn 
migrate southwards , they visit our islands during 
Vol. II. 



the winter; the bernicle goose resorts to the western 
shores of Britain and the north of Ireland, and is 
abundant on the coast of Lancashire and in the Sol way 
Frith ; while the brent goose chiefly haunts the 
eastern and southern shores of Britain, and abounds 
on the Northumbrian cost. Both species are very 
shy and wary, and can only be approached by means 
of the most cautious manoeuvres. They Irequent 
marshy ground covered with spring-tides, feeding 
upon sea-shore grasses, the trends of various algae, 
and particularly of the laver. 

The bernicle breeds in Iceland, Spitzber'gen, 
Greenland, Lapland, the north of Russia and of 
Asia, and the neighbourhood of Hudson's Bay. It 
is of handsome form, and, from the length of the 
tarsi, stands high on the limbs ; its flesh is very ex- 
cellent. 

As the bernicle or bernacle goose and the brent 
goose have till recently been confounded together, 
the fabulous origin attributed to the one involves 
that of the other also. It is strange that in matters 
concerning the maivellous, even men of education 
will take pains to deceive themselves, and, instead 
of investigating nature with a "learned spirit," give 
'a licence to ill directed imagination, and credit ab- 
surdities. When such men are so credulous, how 
can we wonder at the superstitions of the illiterate? 

The first phase of the story in question is, that 
certain trees, resembling willows, more particularly 
in one of the Orkneys, Pomona, produced at the 
ends of their branches small swelled Oalls, containing 
the embryo of a duck suspended by the bill, which, 
when ripe, fell otf into the sea and took wing. 
Munster, Saxo Grammaticus, Scaliger, Fulgosus, 
Bishop Leslie, and Olaus Magnus, all attested to 
the truth of this monstrous absurdity. Gesner, 
Johnston, and Aldrovand may be also cited. Fig. 
1997 is a copy of the bernacle goose-tree, from 
Aldrovand, displaying the pendent fruit, in due 
time to undergo their wonderful transformation. 

A second phase or modification of the story is 
that given by Boiice, the oldest Scottish historian : he 
denies that the geese (Scottice, Claiks) grow on trees 
by their bills, as some believe, but that, as his own 
researches and personal experience prove, they are 
first produced in the form of worms, in the substance 
of old trees or timber floating in the sea ; for such 
a tree, cast on shore in 1480, was brought to the 
laird, who ordered it to be sawn asunder, when there 
appeared a multitude of worms, " throwing them- 
selves out of sundry holes and bores of the tree ; 
some of them were rude, as they were new-shapen; 
some had both head, feet, and wings, but they had 
no feathers ; some of them were perfect shapen 
fowls. At last the people, having this tree each 
day in more admiration, brought it to the kirk of 
St. Andrew's, beside the town of Tyre, where it yet 
remains to our days." Other instances he adduces 
by way of proof, and at length he comes to the 
conclusion, that the production of these geese from 
fruits is the erroneous opinion of the ignorant ; it 
being ascertained that " they are produced only by 
the nature of the ocean sea, which is the cause and 
production of many wonderful things." In this 
view he was supported by Turner and others: 
" When," says Turner, "at a certain time an old 
ship, or a plank , or a pine-mast rots in the sea, some- 
thing like a little fungus at first makes its appear- 
ance, which at length puts on the manifest form of 
birds ; afterwards these are clothed with feathei-s, 
and at last become living and flying fowl." (' Avium 
Prsecip. Hist.,' art. ' Anser.') Turner, however, does 
not give up the goose-tree, but informs Gesner that 
it is a different bird from the brent or bernicle goose, 
which takes its origin from it. (Gesner ' De Avibus,' 
iii., p. 107, &c.) Passing a host of other authori- 
ties, with their accumulated proofs, and the deposi- 
tions of unimpeachable witnesses, we may come to 
Gerard, who, in 1G36, published in his ' Herbalist ' a 
detailed account as follows: — 

" But what our eyes have seen and hands have 
touched we shall declare. There is a small island 
in Lancashire, called the Pile of Foulders, wherein 
are found the broken pieces of old and bruised ships, 
some whereof have been cast thither by shipwracke, 
and also the trunks and bodies with the branches of 
old and rotten trees, cast up there likewise ; vyhereon 
is found a certaine spume, or froth, that in time 
breedeth into certaine shels, in shape like those of 
the muskle, but sharper pointed, and of a whitish 
colour: wherein is contained a thing in form like a 
lace of silke finely woven, as it were, together, of a 
whitish colour ; one end whereof is fastened into 
the inside of the shell, even as the fish of oisters and 
muskles are ; the other end is made fast unto the 
belly of a rude masse or lumpe, which in time com- 
meth to the shape and form of a bird : when it is 
perfectly formed the shell gapeth open, and the 
first thing that appeareth is the foresaid lace or 
string ; next come the legs of the bird hanging out, 
and as it groweth greater it openeth the shell by de- 
grees, till at length it is all come forth and hangeth 
only by the bill : in short space after it commeth to 



full maturitie, and falleth into the sea, where it 
gathereth feathers, and groweth to a fowle bii;ger 
than a mallard and lesser than a goose, havine 
blacke legs and bill or beake, and feathers bla^ke 
and white, spotted in such manner as is our mng- 
pie, called in some places a pie-annet, which the 
people of Lancashire call by no other name than a 
tree-goose ; which place aforesaid, and all those 
parts adjoining, do so much abound therewith, that 
one of the best is bought for three pence. For the 
truth hereof, if any doubt, may it please them to re- 
paire unto me, and I shall satisfie them by the testi- 
monie of good witnesses." 

Fig. 1998 represents the illustration given by 
Gerard of this account. It is apparently intended 
for a log of wood rising out of the sea crowned with 
these goosebeaiing shells. 

We must not suppose that there vrere none who 
doubted this marvel. Belon, who wrote in 1551, 
and others, treated it with ridicule ;_ and in Ray's 
' Willughby,' published in 1678, we find a refutation 
of it, only with an admission of spontaneous gene- 
ration among certain animals of the lower orders. 

What, it may be asked, were the marine animals 
supposed to be the origin of this goose ? Simply 
those singular shell-covered cirrhipedous creatures 
supported on, or rather attached, often in thousands, 
to floating timber by means of long flexible worm- 
like stalks or peduncles. They are known by the 
name of Bernacles, or Bernicles (Pentelasmis ana- 
tifera, Leach; Lepas Anatifera, Linn.). The body of 
these curious creatures is enclosed in a shell not 
unlike that of a muscle, but composed of five por- 
tions, one a dorsal stripe : along the interior margin 
the valves are but partially connected by a mem- 
brane, leaving a large fissure, through which emerge 
the ciliated arms or cirrhi, plumose and jointed. 
The colour of the shell is pale purplish blue. Of 
these animals we shall hereafter have occasion to 
speak more particularly. We present a representa- 
tion of them at Fig. 1999. How it came to pass 
that the absurd tradition we have briefly detailed 
arose, is beyond our conjecture. 

To return to the bernicle goose (for so it is still 
called), its weight is about five pounds; the bill is 
black with a reddish streak on each side ; the 
cheeks and throat, with the exception of a black 
line from the eye to the beak, white ; head, neck, 
and shoulders, black ; upper plumage marbled with 
blue, grey, black, and white. Tail black ; under 
parts white ; legs dusky. We may here refer to the 
figures of the bill of various species of goose, pre- 
sented in order that the differences of form assumed 
may be the more easily compared together. Fig. 
2000 represents the Bill of the Snow Goose (Anser 
hyperboreus). Fig. 2001, the Bill of the Greylag, 
already described. Fig. 2(X)2, the figure of the Bill 
of the Egyptian Goose (Chenalopex jEgyptiacus). 
Fig. 2003, the Bill of the Bernicle Goose. Fig. 2004, 
the Bill of the Cereopsis Goose (Cereopsis Novae 
Hollandise). 

2005. — The Egyptian Goose 

{Chenalopex ^gyptiacus.) The Egyptian Goose 
is abundant along the banks of the Nile, and is dis- 
tributed over the continent of Africa generally. It 
also visits the southern shores of Europe, and is not 
uncommonly seen in Sicily. According to Tem- 
minck it was this species which was held in venera- 
tion by the ancient Egyptians, and of which figures 
are frequently observed among the monumental 
remains of that extraordinary nation. The author 
of 'Egyptian Antiquities,' vol. ii. p. 311 (' Library 
of Entertaining Knowledge '), also observes that the 
chenalopex of Herodotus, still very common in Egypt, 
is of frequent occurrence on the sculptures, though, 
as he says, it was not a sacred bird, unless it may have 
some claims to that honour from having been a fa- 
vourite article of food for the priests. "A place in 
upper Egypt had its name Chenobosciura or Che- 
noboscia (goose-pens) from these animals being fed 
there, probably for sale.'" There is good reason, 
however, to believe that the ordinary common goose 
was kept, as well as the chenalopex. The ancients 
regarded the eggs of this species as second in flavour 
only to those of the pea-fowl. yElian mentions the 
bird, and notices its cunning and wariness. Hence 
the word xi''«^<>"")?' f''o™ xn^, a goose, and d\tinst)t, 
a fox. The Egyptian goos-e is often kept because 
of its beauty in a semi-domesticated state on orna- 
mental sheets of water, both in our country and on 
the continent, and in that condition it breeds freely ; 
hence it happens that the young when fledged often 
take wing, and wandering about on rivers or lakes, 
are shot : a circumstance, as Mr. Gould observes, 
which Occurs yearly. The habits of this goo»e 
closely resemble those of the rest of the tribe. The 
bill is long, slender, and nearly straight, rounded at 
the tip ; the upper mandible is slightly curved, and 
the nail hooked ; refer to Fig. 2002. The tarsi are 
elongated ; the neck is long and slender ; the general 
contour compact. 

H 2 






1M4.— B«u OooM. 



2001.— Bill of Grejr Ug Goon. 



1993,— Canada Goom. 




1*99,— Bemiele Gooae. 





2000.— Bill of Snow^Gooae. 



1997. — Bemicle Goose-tree. (From Aldrorand.) 






199«,— B«rnicl« Gooae, 



SOO!.— Bill of Egyptian Gooae. 



1998.— Bernicles transfopming into Geese. (From Gel 



52 




2003.— Egyptian Goose. 




2003 — Bill of Bernicle Goose. 




^^#' 
-»<^> 




2004.— Bill of Oreojxia Gooie. 





'___-■ ,-.^'^-=^;- ~'-,;->^'' ^-V*^' V *. ^ .^ *^-^_^ __1i^'* 



200<!.— Cereopsia Geeie. 



1999 — The Bernicle. 



^f^. ^J' 







.^J^t 






2007 — Cereopsis Geese and Young 





9009.— Floelu of 6«eae. (From ' Egyptian Antiquities.') 



2009.— Ancient ^yptian Ornamental Garden. 



53 



54 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Geesb. 



2006, 2007.— Thb Cubopsis Goose 

(Cereoptit Nota HoUandia). This heautiful bird 
decidedly rornu the type of a distinct genus, of 
which, however, it is the only known species. 
Accordine to some naturalists it evinces a certain 
decree ol approximation towards the Ardeidte 
(Herons), a point on which we are by no means 
Mtisfied, for ihoutrh less completely orf^nized for 
(wiromini; and diving than many of the Anatidie, 
still neither in food nor in habits, nor in the essen- 
tial points of its anatomy, does it resemble the 
herons. Tlie fact is that the theory of circles or 
given groups inosculating by means of intermediate 
forms stands on a frail basis. The cereopsis ex- 
hibits the leading characters which distinguish the 
geese from the ducks, carried out still more de- 
cidedly. The beak is shorter, the legs longer, and 
the feet less webbed than in mos^ geese : we may 
add to this that the bill is elevated, obtuse, and 
covered, except at the tip, with a cere, or mem- 
brane, on which are the nostrils. The legs are 
bare of leathers a little way above the tarsal joint ; 
the nails are strong, and the wings ample. Refer 
to Bill of Cereopsis, Fig. 2004. 

The cereopsis is a native of New Holland ; and 
though most voyagers who have visited the distant 
shores on which it abounds have alluded to it as a 
species of swan, or as a. goose, it is only within the 
last few years that naturalists at home have gained 
an accurate knowledge of its true characters and its 
natural affinities. The first introduction of the cere- 
opsis into the records of science was by Dr. Latham 
in the year 1802. He published at that time a figure 
and description of the bird in question in the second 
supplement to his ' General Synopsis,' regarding it as 
the type of a new genus among the waders, and to 
this genus he gave the title of Cereopsis, the specific 
designation of the bird, of which indeed he had seen 
only one example, being Cereopsis Novae Hol- 
landiae. The terra cereopsis contains an allusion to 
the large cere covering the base of the bill, but 
which Dr. Latham, misled by an apparently im- 
perfect specimen, supposed to be extended on the 
forehead and face ; as it is, however, the cere is so 
extensive as to justify the title. Subsequently to the 
publication above alluded to, Dr. Latham had the 
opportunity of examining another specimen, from 
which he took the description published in his 
' General History," vol. ix. p. 432, where he corrects 
his former views with regard to the extent of the cere, 
but with an assurance, in a foot-note, that in the 
specimen first seen the cere extended far beyond the 
eyes. Still, strange to say, he retained the cereopsis 
among the wading birds, observing, " Mrs. Lewin 
informs me that it is in sufficient plenty in some 
parts of New Holland, and, from its being so about 
Cape Barren, has obtained the name of Cape Barren 
Goose. It certainly at first sight appears not unlike 
that bird, but in the bill it entirely differs from any 
of the genus, and the legs are bare a great way 
above the joint, although it must be owned that the 
feet, having a considerable membrane between the 
toes, would otherwise bring it to class with the 
web-footed." Mrs. Lewin adds, " that it becomes 
very tame and familiar, so as to be domesticated 
with our common goose, and that the flesh is well fla- 
voured." On the Continent, where, until Temminck 
figured it in his Planches Colonees as appertaining 
to the swimming birds, it did not appear to be 
known, it was regarded, on the authority of Latham, 
as a wader. After Temminck, it was also figured 
by Vieillot as a swimming bird; but the figure, 
although sufiiciently characteristic, is in one point 
erroneous, inasmuch as it gives the cere extending 
over the top of the head. In 1831 Mr. Bennett de- 
scribed and figured the cereopsis in the 'Gardens 
and Menagerie, &c., delineated ;' his figure, which 
is very accurate and characteristic, being taken 
from a specimen in the Gardens of the Zoological 
Society, the Society having, at that time, eight living 
individuals. These, as he observed, then exceeded 
"in number all the stuffed specimens that exist in 
public collections in Europe, the latter, so far as we 
are aware, being limited to one in the British, one in 
the Paris, and one in the Berlin Museums." Two 
specimens of adults, and one or two of young indi- 
viduals, are in the Museum of the Zoological So- 
ciety. 

Though Vieillot fieured the cereopsis, he appears 
not to have suspected its identity with a bird pre- 
viously described by hira in the ' Nouveau Diction- 
naire d'Histoire Naturelle ' as the Cygne andrf, from 
the characters detailed by M. Labillardiore (see his 
account of the voyage of D'Entrecasteaux in 1792), 
" who mentions the occurrence, in Esperance Bay, 
on the south coast of New Holland, of a new species 
of swan, rather smaller than the wild swan, of an 
ashy grey colour, -somewhat lighter beneath, with a 
blackish bill, covered at the base by a tumid brim- 
stone-coloured cere, and legs slightly tinged with 
red.' By waj", however, of confusing the species 
still further, %r Vieillot described a specimen brought 



home by M. Labillardi6re from Van Diemen's Land, 
and deposited it in the Paris Museum, as a species of 
goose, under the title of Anser griseus. J) Entre- 
casteaux informs us that Uiche, one of the natural- 
ists attached to his expedition, had described the 
bii-d under the title of Anas Teme Leeuwin. 

The habits of the cereopis, in a state of nature, 
have been succinctly detailed by various voyagers. 
Most probably it is migratory, at least to a certain 
; extent ; for Captain Flinders found it more abundant 
on Goose Island in some seasons than in others. It 
frequents grassy districts and the shore, but rarely 
takes to the water, its food being exclusively grass. 
Both at Lucky Bay and Goose Island these birds 
were very abundant, and so tame that the crew of 
Captain Flinders had no difficulty in knocking them 
down with sticks, or even in taking them alive. M. 
Bailly reports to the same eff'ect respecting those 
seen by him at Preservatiou Island ; and Labillar- 
diere says, that at first they were so little alarmed 
by the presence of man, as to suft'er themselves to 
be taken by the hand ; but in a short time they be- 
came aware of their danger, and took to flight on 
the approach of any one. All agree as to the 
delicacy of its flesh. From the ease with which 
the cereopsis becomes domesticated, we are not 
without hope of seeing this bird added to the list 
of those which enliven our farmyards, and contri- 
bute to the luxuries of our table. It breeds freely 
in our climate, and feeds like the common goose, 
but is even more familiar, and requires only ordi- 
nary attention. Its voice is deep, hoarse, and clans- 
ing. In size, this species equals the common goose. 
The top of the head is pale grey ; the rest of the 
plumage slate-grey, each feather on the back and 
shoulders being margined with a paler tint, while 
the greater coverts and the secondary quill-feathers 
have a round dusky spot near the extremity ; the 
quills and tail-feathers dusky black ; tip of the bill 
black ; cere yellow ; tarsi orange-yellow ; toes and 
webs black. 

Fig. 2007 represents a pair of these birds with 
their young. 

When in charge of their young the adults are 
very pugnacious, driving other birds to a distance 
with great spirit ; and even at other times this jea- 
lousy of their companions in captivity is but little 
abated, as we have remarked in the specimens at 
the Gardens. The black swan from New Holland 
displays a similar spirit, and will not endure the ap- 
proach of its snow-white relative ; indeed, we know 
of instances in which white swans have not only 
been seriously injured, but even killed by their dusky 
rivals. 

Fig. 2008 is the Copy of an Egyptian painting in 
the British Museum, of great interest notwithstand- I 
ing its mutilation. It is divided into two compart- 
ments. In the upper "on the left is a figure 
squatted, probably the farmer or some superinten- 
dent, and two figures approaching it. Another, 
with his back turned towards them, is feeding a 
flock of geese, all of which have red legs and beaks, 
but in other parts of their bodies there are varieties 
of colouring." The lower compartment represents 
on the lett hand a person apparently making an 
offering, but this is doubtful. " Behind this figure 
is a man who holds a goose by the wings, as is often 
done now ; he is going to put it into a basket, of 
which we see five ; one above another, each with a 
goose or more in it." Behind this figure is a flock 
of geese, with a driver amongst them, holding in his 
hand a long rod, paioted red. At the right ex- 
tremity are a couple of geese, and a flock of gos- 
lings represented with great fidelity. " There must 
have been a great demand for geese in Egypt, as 
they appear to have been a common article of food. 
The priests were not allowed to eat fish, but were 
recompensed for this privation by a plentiful supply 
of beef and goose." The geese represented appear 
to us to be of the ordinary domestic race. 

Fig. 2009 represents an ornamental Pond in an 
Egyptian garden, with a border of flowers around 
it, encircled by fruit-trees ; in the pond are lotus 
flowers, as well as fish, ducks, and geese (perhaps 
chenalopex), with their goslings ; all probably kept 
for plelisure ; for it would appear, as this and 
other paintings prove, that the Egyptain gardens 
were not only laid out with all the stiffness and 
formality of an old Dutch garden, but carefully cul- 
tivated and adorned. 

Fig. 2010 represents, in the centre, a table on 
which we see a goose that has been killed, and 
plucked, excepting the head, &c., and, but that the 
legs and part of the wings are cut off, much resem- 
bling those with which the shops of the London poul- 
terers are so plentifully stored at Michaelmas. There 
is also the shoulder of a sheep or calf, and flowers 
and fmits are ranged around. 

From the Geese we pass on to the Mergansers 
(goosander, smew), in which we find the beak 
straight, narrow, and comparatively slender ; sub- 
'cylindrical anteriorly, abruptly hooked at the tip, 
and with the margins of both mandibles armed 



with sharp serrations, or tooth-like processes di- 
rected backwards, and well calculated for holding 
slippery prey, as fishes, &c. ; the tongue is slender. 
The feet are large and fully webbed ; the hind toe 
is placed rather high on the tarsus and lobated. 
The limbs are placed behind the point of equili- 
brium. Fig 201 1 represents the Bill of Merganser. 
Fig. 2012, the Foot. 

The Mergansers are completely aquatic in their 
habits, and dive, either in order to evade pursuit, or 
in chace of their finny prey, with astonishing ease 
and rapidity. While swimming, they appear as if 
deeply sunk in the water, owing to the remarkable 
flatness of the body. Their flight is strong and 
vigorous, but on land their actions are embarrassed. 
Natives of the colder latitudes, they are migratory 
in their habit^i, passing southwards on the approach 
of winter. Three species visit our coasts, and the 
mouths of our larger rivers, as also those of the 
warmer and temperate parts of the Continent. In 
their habits these birds are extremely shy and wary, 
and appear to be incapable of domestication. Their 
flesh IS rank and disgusting. The young birds of 
both sexes resemble the female parent in plumage, 
which is very different in colouring from that of the 
male, whose livery is rich and variegated. The species 
are not numerous. 

2013. — The Goosandbr. 
(Mergus Merganser). Le Harle of the French ; 
Garsen-siiger and Taucher-gans of the Germans; 
Mergo, Oca marina, and Mergo dominicano of the 
Italians. It is also the Sugherone of the Italians ; 
the Meer-rack and See-rack ofthe Germans; Hwyad 
ddanhedog of the ancient British ; Bieure of the 
old French ; Dundiver, Sawbill, Jacksaw, &c., pro- 
vincial English. 

This fine species is a native of the high northern 
regions of Europe, Asia, and America, where amidst 
morasses along a dreary coast it makes its nest and 
rears its brood. It has been seen in Japan. Mr. 
Selby states that in the northern parts of Scotland, 
the Orkneys, and other adjacent islands it is a per- 
manent resident, finding subsistence throughout the 
year either on the fresh-water lakes of the interior, 
or, when these are frozen, in the deep indentations of 
the coast, formed by the saline lochs so numerous 
in that part of the kingdom. In the south of 
England, excepting during very severe winters, it is 
rarely seen, but then in small parties of seven or 
eight ; in Holland and Germany, however, where 
extensive inland fresh waters abound, it is tolera- 
bly common. It is much more rare in Italy. Dr. 
Richardson observes that this species merely winters 
in Pennsylvania, where it is not abundant, and re- 
turns to the fur countries to breed. It is found in 
Iceland, Greenland, Siberia, Kamtschatka, &-c. The 
goosander, excepting when on the wing, is generally 
seen on the water, where it is completely at home ; 
diving in pursuit of fish, which when seized are se- 
curely held in its serrated bill. It has the power of 
remaining submerged for a long time ; and its sub- 
aquatic progress is surprisingly rapid. The nest of 
this species is placed near the edge of the water, and 
consists of grass, roots, and fibres, with a lining, of 
down. It is sometimes concealed among stones, 
sometimes in long tufted herbage, and sometimes 
even in the hollow stumps of decayed trees. The 
eggs, twelve or fourteen in number, are of a cream- 
yellow. 

The old male goosander in full plumage is a beau- 
tiful bird, and has the head thickly tufted, this and 
part of the neck being greenish black, the reflection 
varying in different lights ; lower part of the neck, 
breast, under parts, coverts of the wings and scapu- 
lars farthest from the body, tinged of a yellow- 
ish rose-colour (which soon fades in stuffed speci- 
mens to white) ; upper part of the back and scapu- 
lars nearest to the body deep black ; quills blackish, 
great coverts bordered with black ; rest of the back 
and tail ash-coloured ; beauty-spot on the wing 
white, without transverse bands ; bill deep red, 
black above and on the terminal nail ; iris reddish 
brown, sometimes red : feet vermilion red. Length 
twenty-six to twenty-eight inches. (Temm.) 

The lower figure is the male, the upper the fe- 
male. 

The trachea of the male has two enlargements 
while running down the neck, and a large bulla at 
the bifurcation in the chest. 

2014.— The Smew 

(Mergus albellus). Le petit Harle huppd, ou la 
Piette of Buffbii ; Weisser-siiger and Kreutz-ente of 
the Germans. Merga oca, minore, and cenerino, of 
the Italians; Lleian-wen of the ancient British; 
White Nun, Vare Widgeon, and Smee, provincial 
English. 

Like the preceding species, this bird is a native of 
the arctic regions of both worlds, whence if migrates 
southwards m autumn, and in severe wintei-s is not 
uncommon on our eastern coasts, about the mouths 
of our rivers, and in the fenny districts. It is rfr. 



DWERS.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



55 



markable, however, that the majority of those which 
visit our island are females or youn^ males, adult 
males in their full a;arb beina; comparatively seldom 
met with. It is abundant during the winter in Ger- 
many, France, and Holland, and is not uncommon 
in Italy. With other mergansers it frequents the 
river Wolga ; and has been observed in Japan. In 
America, according to Wilson, it may frequently be 
seen on some of the lakes of New England, and of 
the state of New York ; but it returns to the fur 
countries to breed. Bonaparte states that at Phila- 
delphia it is very rare, and adventitious. 

The smew has all the habits of its race, and is vi- 
gorous on the wing, and quick and active as a diver, 
feeding on fish, small Crustacea, and insects. It is 
extremely shy and wary. Its mode of nidiftcation 
resembles that of the goosander, and the eggs are yel- 
lowish white. 

The old male has a great spot of greenish black 
on each side of the bill, and a similar coloured but 
longitudinal one on the occiput; the tufted crest, 
neck, scapulars, small coverts of the wings and all 
the lower parts very pure white ; upper part of the 
back, the two crescents which are directed under 
the sides of the breast, and the edges of the scapu- 
lars, deep black ; tail ash-coloured ; sides and thighs 
varied with ash-coloured zigzags ; bill, legs (tarsi), 
and toes bluish ash ; webs black ; iris brown. Length 
fifteen to sixteen inches. 

Female : — Summit of the head, cheeks, and occi- 
put reddish brown ; throat, upper part of the neck, 
belly, and abdomen white ; lower part of the neck, 
breast, sides, and rump bright ash ; upper parts and 
tail deep ash ; wings variegated with white, ash, 
and black. Length fiftaen inches. 

Young of the Year, similar to the female. 

In the male the trachea has one gradual enlarge- 
ment in its course down the neck, and a consider- 
able bulla at the bifurcation. 

Family COLYMBID^, or DIVERS. 

The birds of this family display a fitness for diving 
habits even more decided than is to be found either 
in the diving ducks or the mergansers, having the 
characteristics with which such habits are connected 
carried out to a still hieher degree. The plumage 
is deep, close, silky, and extremely glossy. The 
bill is long and sharp ; the wings are small, concave, 
composed of stiff feathers, and used for the purpose 
of giving additional impetus to the body when 
under water. The limbs are placed as far back as 
possible, the tarsus is flattened, so as to cut the 
water, and the toes, either lobated or webbed, are 
so arranged as to fold up into a small compass when 
drawn towards the body in order to give the stroke. 
The tail is short, or wanting ; the body is flat, and 
hence it appears to float deeply on the surface of 
the water. 

Necessarily embarrassed and awkward on land, the 
Colymbidae are alert and vigorous on their conge- 
nial element, from which they can seldom be forced 
to take wing, trusting rather to diving than to flight 
for safety. They rise indeed with difficulty, but 
having attained a due elevation sweep along very 
rapidly, and are capable of a long sustained flight. 

The first group of this family which we shall no- 
tice is that of the Grebes (Podiceps). 

2015. — The Eared Grebe 

{Podiceps auritns). Le Grebe oreillard of Tem- 
minck. In the form of their body, the position and 
structure of the feet, and the nature of their plum- 
age, the grebes are expressly fitted for the element 
on which they habitually reside, and in which they 
chase their finny prey with arrow-like velocity. 
The head is narrow ; the beak long, pointed, and 
l_ sharp, somewhat compressed at the sides, and slightly 
IP inclined upwards towards the tip. The neck is long ; 
the body boat-shaped and flattened ; the wings are 
short, concave, and pointed ; there is no tail ; the 
plumage is thick, full, and soft ; a dense layer of 
fine down forms an under-dress, being covered by 
feathers of a silky gloss and texture, and completely 
waterproof. The toes differ from those of every 
other aquatic race of birds. Instead of beintr webbed, 
as in the duck tribe and others of the Natatorial 
order, the toes are separate and flattened, having 
their edges furnished with a broad stiff membrane, 
each toe being, in fact, a distinct and beautifully- 
formed paddle. Of the three anterior toes, the 
outermost is the longest and largest; the next is 
nearly as large, and its outer edge lies tile-like over 
the inner membrane of the outermost ; the inner, 
most toe is less than the middle one, on which its 
outer edge impinges. The hind toe is short, placed 
high on the leg, and furnished with a lobated mem- 
brane. The arrangement of the scales covering the 
toes gives to them a leaf-like appearance ; for the 
lines dividing the scales ran in regular succession 
obliquely upwards from a central line or shaft, 
formed by the bones advancing to the tips, which 
are covered with a broad, flat nail. The leg, or 



tarsus, is short, and flattened laterally so as to cut 
the water when drawn up alter each stroke. 

Fig. 2016 represents the Fool of the grebe, and 
well depicts its tri-oared character. 

The situation of the legs in the grebe is thrown as 
far backwards as possible, and the thigh is short, 
and, as it were, retracted, so as not to advance be- 
yond the body ; the grebe, however, cannot sit up- 
right like the penguin, lor it does not rest on its 
heel : it is not plantigrade. When resting on the 
land it lies prone on its whole body, and in this situ- 
ation shuffles along like a seal, pushing itself on- 
wards by striking the ground with its feet. Ill 
adapted for the land, the grebe, as we have seen, is 
admirably constructed for the water. It swims low, 
owing to the flatness of its body, and when diving in 
pursuit of its prey uses its wings to add to its ve- 
locity. 

The quickness with which the grebes dive is very 
remarkable ; so instantaneously do they plunge, 
that-they are able to avoid the shot from a fowling- 
piece, fired by a common flint lock, and they will 
then make a stretch of two hundred yards before 
coming up to breathe, which is done by merely 
raising the head for a second above the water. Mr. 
Selby informs us that, when making a tour through 
Holland, in company with Sir W. .Jardine, he gave 
chase to a crested grebe, upon one of the lakes in 
the neighbourhood of Rotterdam, and that though 
in a boat conducted by those accustomed to the 
business, it cost upwards of an hour and a half s se- 
vere exertion to get within range and secure it by a 
shot through the neck. The food of this singular 
group of birds consists of fishes and aquatic insects ; 
but it is observed that the stomach is always found 
to contain a mass, greater or less, of the feathers of 
their own body. That these are swallowed to assist 
digestion, as has been suggested, is not clear ; most 
probably they are involuntarily swallowed during 
the dressing and cleaning of the plumage, for we 
often find in the stomach of cows and other rumi- 
nants balls of hair ; the material being collected 
into the mouth while licking their own or each 
other's coats, and then swallowed. 

The places chosen by the grebes for their nidift- 
cation are among the thick reeds and luxuriant 
aquatic herbage of marshes, or the sedges which 
border fresh-water lakes and rivers, the nest being 
composed of a mass of half-decayed roots, dried 
flags, and other similar vegetable materials. It is 
large and compact, but roughly put together, and 
rises or falls according to the rise or fall of the water 
on which it floats ; the eggs are three or four in 
number, and carefully covered up by the female 
every time she leaves the nest. 

It is only within the last few years that ornitho- 
logists have extricated the species of the genus 
Podiceps from the confusion in which they were 
left by the earlier writers, who, misled by the great 
difference existing between the plumage of birds in 
an immature and adult state, had set down the 
young as specifically distinct from their parents ; 
nor is this error much to be wondered at, since the 
differences are not only very considerable as it 
regards colour, but also as respecting the absence 
or presence of long ear-tufts, occipital crests, or 
throat-frills, with which the adults are more or less 
ornamented during the breeding season. The horned 
grebe, the eared grebe, and the crested grebe, take 
their names from the position of these silky plumes, 
which produce a striking and elegant appearance. 
We have every reason, however, to believe that 
they are lost during the winter, being the temporary 
ornaments of the breeding season. Fig. 2017 
represents the Head of the Eared Grebe in full 
plumage. 

The genus Podiceps has a wide geographical 
range, being found in every quarter of the globe. 
The following species are common to Northern 
Europe, Asia, and America : — The Red-neck Grebe 
(Podiceps rubricollis), a winter visitor to our Island; 
the Crested Grebe (P. cristatus), which breeds in 
some of the fens of the midland counties of England 
and in Scotland ; the Horned Grebe (P. cornutus), 
a rare species, but occasionally breeding in the fenny 
districts of the eastern counties ; and the Eared Grebe 
(P. auritus), also a very rare bird in our island, but 
occasionally known to breed in the same districts as 
the preceding. 

The Little Grebe or Dabchick, common in the 
ponds and lakes of our country and spread over the 
greater part of Europe and Asia, is represented in 
North America by the P. carolinensis. Several 
species are peculiar to Australia. The plumage of 
the male eared grebe in full dress is as follows: — 
Crown of the head and short ruff round the neck 
shining black; from behind and below the eyes on 
each side is a tuft of long, slender, shining orange- 
buff feathers, which cover the ears and nearly meet 
behind ; throat, neck, sides of breast, and upper 
plumage deep shining greyish black ; secondaries 
white : under plumage white with a silky lustre ; 
bill black ; iris vermilion ; legs brown. 



Fig. 2015 represents a Male in Foil Plumage, and 
a Young Bird of the Year. 

We pass from the grebes to the divers, or loons, 
which, in most points, bear a close resemblance to 
the former, excepting that the feet are webbed. 
Three species are known, natives of the high 
northern regions of both worlds ; they are migratory 
in their habits, breeding among the fresh-water lakes 
of the arctic circle, whence they visit the coasts of 
more southern countries, and those of our islands 
during the winter, feeding on herrings, sprats, and 
other fish. The black-throated diver (Colymbus 
arcticus) and the red-throated diver (C. septentrio- 
nalis) are said to breed in the Orkneys ; they are 
abundant in Hudson's Bay. 

2018. — The Northern Diver 

{Colymbus glacialis). Greatest speckled Diver or 
Loon of Williighby ; Immer Diver, Ember Goose 
of Sibbald ; Imber, le grand Plongeon of Button ; 
Schwarzhalsiger Seetaucher, Eis-taucher, Grosse 
Hab-ente, and Meer-nocring of the Germans ; In- 
land Loon of the Hudson's Bay residents ; Turlik of 
the Greenlanders ; Kagloolek of the Esquimaux; 
Eithennew Moqua of the Cree Indians; Talkijeh of 
the Chippewayans ; Trochydd mawrof the ancient 
British. 

This fine species inhabits the arctic regions of the 
globe, migrating southwards in winter, during which 
season numbers frequent our northern coasts, and 
especially the Frith of Forth, attracted by the shoals 
of herrings, on which they principally feed. It is 
occasionally seen about our southern coasts, and 
has been killed in the Thames below Woolwich. It 
is remarkable that the great mass of those birds 
which visit our coast consists of the young of the 
year, or of the previous year, adults in full plumage 
being seldom seen, nor are these ever observed on 
the lakes of Germany, France, or Switzerland. The 
northern diver breeds on the shores of the inland 
lakes of the north, and on the islets, which are often 
studded over by their nests. The eggs, two in 
number, are large, and of a deep oil green, spotted 
with purplish red. Dr. Richardson, who had 
abundant opportunities of observing the manners 
and habits of the northern diver, remarks that 
though it " is generally described as an inhabitant of 
the ocean, we seldom observed it either in the Arctic 
Sea or Hudson's Bay ; but it abounds .in all the 
interior lakes, where it destroys vast quantities of 
fish. It is rarely seen on land, its limbs being ill 
fitted for walking, though admirably adapted to 
its aquatic habits. It can swim with great swift- 
ness, and to a very considerable distance, under the 
water; and, when it comes to the surface, it seldom 
exposes more than the neck. It takes wing with 
difficulty, flies heavily, though swiftly, and fre- 
quently in a circle round those who intrude on its 
haunts. Its loud and very melancholy cry, like the 
howling of the wolf, and at times like the distant 
scream of a man in distress, is said to portend rain. 
Its flesh is dark, tough, and unpalatable. We 
caught several of these birds in the fishing nets, in 
which they had entangled themselves in the pursuit 
of fish." 

Montagu informs us that one of these birds, 
captured on our shores, was kept in a pond for 
some months. "In a few days," he says, "it be- 
came extremely docile, would come to the call from 
one side of the pond to the other, and would take 
food from the hand. The bird had received an in- 
jury in the head, which had deprived one eye of its 
sight, and the other was a little impaired : but, not- 
withstanding, it could, by incessantly diving, dis- 
cover all the fish that were thrown into the pond. 
When it could not get fish it would eat flesh ; and 
when it quitted the water, it shoved its body along 
upon the ground like a seal, by jerks, rubbing the 
breast against the ground ; and returned again to 
the water in a similar manner. In swimming and 
diving the legs only were used, and not the wings, 
and by their situation so far behind, and their 
little deviation from the line of the body, it is en- 
abled to propel itself in the water with great 
velocity in a straight line, as well as turn with 
astonishing quickness." 

The colours of the adult northern diver are ad- 
mirably arranged ; head and neck jet black, with a 
broad "collar of white striated with black, nearly 
encircling the lower part of the neck, and a similar 
but narrow collar the upper part. Upper plumage 
glossy black, thickly dotted with square marks of 
white, disposed in regular rows ; sides of the chest 
white striated with black. Under surface pure 
white ; tail very short ; bill black ; legs dull black ; 
length thirty-five or thirty-six inches. In the young 
of the year, the head and upper plumage are gene- 
rally of a greyish brown ; and the under plumage 
white. After the second moult, a dark band appears 
along the neck, and the upper plumage begins to 
assume indications of the adult character, which is 
still more developed at the third moult, and is per- 
fected at the fourth. 





;011.— Billnf MergiMer, 



'■■>?ri'fJ'^^ 




tOlt.— QooiHidan. 



20U.— Foot of Mergtnaer. 








>0M.— Smewi 




»0 10. -Ancient Egyptian Painting. 



tOIS.— Eaml Greon. 





son.— Hull of Onbe. 




8018.— Northern Diver. 




MU.— Funkeet Ank . 




2080 Bill of Guillemot. 




202<.— Black Ouillemotf. 



2019.— Foolish Onillemots. 



2028 Gizzard of Little Auk. 






20S6.— I'uffm. 

No, 58. Vol. II. 



2013.— Great Auk. 

[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



|OST.-Uttl« Aak. 



57 



98 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Puffins. 



Family ALCADM (AUKS. GUILLEMOTS, 
and PUFFINS). 



The AlcadtB are equally well adapted for the water 
as the Colymbidae ; indeed, the power of the winjp 
u organs of flight is more circumscribe J, and in 
one species they are useful only as paddles for 
assisting in aquatic progression. The legs are 
extremely short, but iwwerl'ul, placed posteriorly, 
so that in resting on the rocks the birds assume an 
upright attitude, the whole of the tarsus as well as 
the toes being applied to the surface. The toes are 
usually only three in number, and fully webbed; 
when the hind-toe exists it is in a rudimentary 
condition. The bill varies in form in the different 
genera; but is generally compressed, and often 
grooved at the sides. Unlike the Colymbidae, the 
AlcadtB are strictly oceanic, never resorting to fresh 
water. Fishes, Crustacea, and other marine produc- 
tions, constitute their food. They are natives of the 
northern hemisphere, the Pens;uins (Spheniscida;, 
Bonap.) taking their place in the southern. 

2019. — ^The Foolish Guillemot 
( Una Troile). In the genus Una the bill is 
moderate, robust, straight, acute, and compressed ; j 
nostrils basal ; the limbs short, the tarsi alone 
appearing to emerge from the body ; tail very 
thort. Fig. 2020 represents the Bill of the Guille- 
mot ; Fig. 2021, the Foot. 

The Foolish Guillemot, so called from suffering 
itself to be taken rather than quit the single egg 
over which it broods, is found in the Arctic seas of 
the Old and New World ; in winter the immense 
flocks which have left their breeding places, for 
they are migratory in their habits, pass along the 
coasts of Norway and England^ Holland, and France, 
and abound in the Baltic. According to Nuttall, 
the great body of American birds of this species 
take their course along the whole coast of Hudson's 
Bay. Labrador, and Newfoundland, and winter in 
the Bay of Fundy. In spring the flocks which were 
scattered over the bays, gulfs, and seas of the 
temperate latitudes, where food was abundant, re- 
turn to their old breeding haunts. In our island 
they make their appearance towards the end of 
March or the beginning of April, and tenant in 
myriads the Orkneys, the Bass Rock, the isolated 

Sillars of trap-rock in the Farn Islands, the cliffs of 
carborough, and the Needles and cliffs of the Isle 
of Wight, as well as other places. Here, associated 
with razor-bills, puffins, and other sea-fowl, they 
cover the ledges of the precipitous rocks, ranged in 
tiers ; the guillemots in crowded rows, each female 
sitting in an upright position on her own egg, which 
she has deposited on the narrow naked ledge ; all 
living in harmony together ; the appearance made 
by the congregated multitude in a dense mass is 
very curious. Incubation lasts a month ; the young, 
which are at first clad in a thick down, of a blackish 
grey colour above, white beneath, are plentifully 
supplied with young herrings, sprats, and other fish, 
till in the course of five or six weeks they acquire 
their plumage, and, taking to the water, depend 
upon their own exertions. The egg is of a pale 
green, stained with black and umber-brown. 

In the autumn the guillemots leave the rocks, and 
betake themselves entirely to the ocean, where the 
old birds undergo a moult, in which the black of 
the throat and sides of the neck is exchanged for 
■white, the black being reassumed the following 
spring. At this time, from the loss of so many of 
the quill-feathers, they are often for a short time 
unable to fly ; but as they are out at sea, and dive 
on the approach of danger with astonishing quick- 
ness, this is of little consequence. The flocks now 
gradually pass southwards, following the shoals of 
fishes which leave our coasts, and at length reach 
the Mediterranean and the coast of Sicily, where 
they feast upon the anchovy and sardine. On the 
other hand, a few stragglers from the polar circle 
visit the friths of Scotland, which appear to be 
the extent of their southern migration. The flight 
of the guillemot is sharp and rapid, at a low degree 
of elevation, but not of long duration. In its summer 
dress the head and neck of this bird are black, and 
the feathers of a velvety texture ; the upper surface 
is sooty black ; the under plumage white ; bill and 
legs black. Length fifteen inches. 

In the young of the year the black of the upper 
parts is clouded with ash colour ; ashy brown pre- 
dominates on the lower part of the neck ; and the 
white of the lower parts is not so pure. 

2022.— The Black Guillemot 

(Uria Grylie). The Black Guillemot inhabits the 
same range of countries as the preceding species, 
and migrates southwards in winter along the borders 
of the ocean. It is rare on the English coast, but 
breeds abundantly in the Orkney and Shetland Isles, 
on the ledges of the rocks, and, according to Selby, 
Gould, and others, lays a single egg of a greyish 
white speckled with black and dusky grey. Both 



Nuttall and Audubon, however, affirm that in the 
northern districts of America this species lays three 
eggs. "On several occasions," says the latter ob- 
server, " at Labrador some of my party and myself 
saw several black guillemots sitting on eggs, in the 
same fissure of a rock, where every bird had three 
eggs under it" For the reception of these eggs, 
according to the same authority, the birds raise a 
sort of nest or fabric of pebbles to the height of two 
or three inches, in order that the water trickling 
through the fissures and recesses of the rock may 
not reach the eggs. 

Dr. Richardson states that this species abounds in 
the Arctic seas and straits from Melville Island down 
to Hudson's Bay, and remains, though in diminished 
numbers, during winter in the pools of open water, 
which occur, even in high latitudes, among the floes 
of ice. In summer the colour of this species is 
black, with a white band across the wings. In 
winter the old birds have the cheeks, throat, and all 
the under plumage pure white ; these parts ac- 
quiring at tne vernal moult the sooty black which 
remains during the summer. 

2023.— The Great Auk 

(Alca impamis). The true Auks are strictly oceanic 
birds, never leaving the water, except for the purpose 
of incubation. They breed, associated together in 
vast flocks, on the ledges of precipices, in caverns, 
and deep fissures. They dive with great ease, and 
using their wings, pursue their finny prey, deep below 
the surface, with wonderful rapidity. The young are 
fed from the crops of the parents, even some time after 
they leave their " rocky lair," and swim feariessly 
amidst the waves. Awkward as the movements of 
these birds are on shore, they shuffle along with 
considerable dispatch. The bill is deep, compressed, 
and cultrated; the upper mandible arched and 
hooked ; the nostrils are nearly hidden by the 
feathers of the forehead ; the wings short. 

In the Great Auk the wings are so reduced as to 
be incapable of serving the purpose of flight, but 
they are most efficient paddles, aiding its progress 
beneath the water. This fine species is a native of 
the Arctic circle ; its visits to the northern islands 
of Scotland are very rare ; Dr. Fleming gives the 
account of one which was taken alive at St. Kilda 
in 1822. And one was ineffectually chased by 
Bullock, during his tour to the northern isles, 1813, 
who followed in a six-oared boat, and found himself, 
despite the exertions of the men, completely dis- 
tanced. It was ultimately shot, allowing the boat- 
men, to whom it appeared indifferent, to approach 
within gun range. The one described by Dr. 
Fleming swam under water with a long and heavy 
cord tied to its leg, making way with extraordinary 
rapidity. The great auk is frequent about the 
coasts of Norway and Iceland, but still more so 
around the icy shores of Greenland and Spitzbergen, 
where it breeds in tha clefts and caverns of rocks, 
above the highest tides. The female lays a single 
egg, as large as that of a swan, of a whitish yellow 
marked with numerous lines and strokes of black. 

Fish and various Crustacea constitute the food of 
this species ; its favourite prey is said to be the 
lump-fish (Cyclopterus lurapus). The great auk 
measures nearly three feet in length. The upper 
plumage is deep black, w ith the exception of a large 
patch of white on the forehead and around the eyes, 
and a slight band of white on the wing; under 
plumage white ; bill and legs dull black. In winter 
the cheeks, throat, fore-part and sides of the neck 
are white. 

2021.— The Razor-bill Auk 

{Alca Tarda). In this species the wings are capable 
of short but rapid flight ; they are also used as oars 
in the water. The Razor-bill is common in tlie 
higher latitudes of the northern, and plentiful on 
the rocky coasts of our island, where it breeds with 
guillemots and puffins ; it tenants the Needles and 
adjacent cliffs of the Isle of Wight, and the eggs, 
which are esteemed a delicacy, are taken in great 
numbers. As the chalk-cliffs there are six hundred 
feet in elevation, the islanders reach them from 
above by descending the perpendicular cliffs much 
in the same perilous manner as is practised by the 
Norwegians and hardy natives of the Feroe Islands. 
They drive a large stake, or bar of iron, into the top 
of the cliff, and to this they fasten astrongrope, with 
a stick put crosswise at the end, for the support of 
the adventurer, who is lowered down the front of 
the horrid precipice. If his object is to secure the 
eggs only, he shouts to scare away the birds, which 
rise in countless numbers ; but if he wishes to secure 
the birds, for the sake of the feathers, he goes to 
work in silence, and either catches them in their 
holes, or knocks them down with a stick as they fly 
out ; the soft feathers are valuable, and find a ready 
market; the flesh is worthless, but is used by the 
fishermen as baits for crab-pots, &c. The same 
mode is practised in the Isle of Man. On the coast 
of Labrador thousands of these birds are killed for 



the sake of the breast-feathers, which are close, 
warm, and elastic ; and the eggs are collected in 
incredible multitudes. Each female, however, only 
lays one egg, large in proportion, and pointed, of a 
yellowish white blotcJied with dark Drown. The 
razor-bill is fifteen inches long. The head, neck, 
and upper plumage are black, with a distinct white 
line from the beak to the eye, and a narrow bar 
across the wings ; under parts white ; bill black, 
with a white band down the sides of each mandible ; 
legs black. In winter the tliroat and fore-part of 
the neck are white. 

2025, 2026.— The Puffin or Coulterneb 

(Mormon Fratercula, Temm.). Fratercula arctica, 
Brisson ; Alca arctica, Linn. ; Mormon arcticus, 
Illiger. 

In this genus the bill is short, nearly as deep as 
long, and very compressed, the edge of the upper 
mandible being thin and sharp; the nostrils are 
slits on the border of the upper mandible near the 
base ; the sides are marked by oblique ridges and 
furrows, and a loose puckered skin surrounds the 
corners of the mouth. Two horny appendages are 
placed on the eyelids ; the smaller one above, the 
larger beneath the eye. 

In its general form and habits the puffin resembles 
the guillemot and razor-bill : it has the same thick 
rounded contour, the same address in the water, and 
the same rapid flight The puffin is extensively 
spread through the Arctic circle, whence it migrates 
southwards in winter. It is a native of our islands, 
visiting us from the south about the middle of April, 
and departing for the coasts of Spai:'. and Italy in 
August. It is common on various parts of our 
shores; is numerous at the Needles and cliffs of 
the Isle of Wight, and upon Priestholm Island, off 
the coast of Anglesea; many resort to the Farn 
Islands. In the latter place, according to Mr. 
Selby, there being no rabbits, the burrows of which 
it can usurp, it selects such spots as are covered 
with a stratum of vegetable mould, and digs a 
burrow for itself in which to incubate. The puffins 
" commence this operation about the first week of 
May, and the hole is generally excavated to the 
depth of three feet, often in a curving direction, and 
occasionally with two entrances. When engaged 
in digging, which is principally performed by the 
males, they are sometimes so intent upon their work 
as to admit of being taken by the hand ; and the 
same may also be done during incubation. At this 
period I have frequently obtained specimens by 
thrusting my arm into the burrow, though at the 
risk of receiving a bite from the powerful sharp- 
edged bill of the old bird. At the farther end of 
this hole the single egg is deposited, which in size 
nearly equals that of a pullet." On rocky coasts, 
as the cliffs of the Isle of Wight, the puffin selects 
the crevices and fissured recesses of the precipice 
for its breeding retreat. The young are at first 
covered with blackish down, and in about a month 
are sufficiently plumed to follow their parents to 
sea. The puffin is an admirable diver : it may be 
often seen perched on the ledge of a bold precipice 
peering with its keen eyes into the glassy water 
below, — suddenly, it throws itself headlong into the 
abyss, cleaving the waves, which sparkle as they 
close over it. Soon, however, it reappears, laden 
with a row of sprats, its favourite food, which hang 
from the bill, their heads being secured between 
the mandibles; and now, taking a curved sweep 
upwards, it bears them to its young. 

In the puffin, the crown of the head, the upper 
parts of the body, and a collar round the neck are 
black ; the cheeks pearl-grey ; the horny append- 
ages to the eyelids leaden-grey; the bill, deeply 
furrowed, is bluish grey at the base, the middle 
being rich orange-red, which deepens into fine red I 
at the tip ; legs orange red. Length thirteen inches. 
The young have the beak small and smooth, and of 
a dull yellow; and the general plumage more 
dusky. 

2027.— The Little Auk 

{Mergulus mdanoleucus, Ray). Uria alle, Temm. ; 
Alca alle, Linn. ; Rotch and Sea-Dove, Provincial. 

This active little bird is intermediate between the 
auks and guillemots; the bill is not so long and 
pointed as in the latter, yet not compressed and 
furrowed as in the former; it is short, stout, and 
broader than deep at the base. Tlie Little Auk is 
a native of the Arctic circle, and is recognised as a 
winter visitor to the coasts of Scotland : Mr. Selby 
suggests that a few may perhaps breed upon the 
extreme rocky islands of the north of that part of 
our country, but of this we have no definite inform- 
ation ; on the coasts of England it is rarely seen, 
and then only when driven by storms and adverse 
winds from its northern home. It abounds on the 
bleak coasts of Greenland and Spitzbergen, and 
thousands have been seen at Melville Island. When 
the floes of ice are broken up by the wind, myriad* 
of these birds may be seen riding on the waves 



Penguins.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



59 



busily engaged in searching for various marine 
animals, which are tossed up by the agitated waters. 
The ocean is its home and resting-place, except 
during the season of incubation, when it resorts in 
thousands to the ledges of precipitous rocI;s, on 
which the female deposits her single egg, of a pale 
bluish green. Its flight is rapid, but low, and never 
long sustained. This species is about nine inches 
long. The head, back of the neck, and upper plu- 
mage are black ; under plumage white ; a narrow- 
white bar across the wing; the throat, neck, and 
upper part of the breast pitch-black in summer, 
more or less white in winter. 

Fig. 2028 shows the Gizzard and Proventriculus 
of tills bird laid open: the latter is remarkable for 
its peculiar form. 

2029. — The Pakiiakeet Auk 
{Phaleris Psittaculd). Alca psittacula, Pallas. 
This species, which has the habits and manners of 
the preceding, differs in the form of the beak, of 
which the upper mandible is swollen, and bent at 
the tip, and the under mandible enlarged and turned 
upwards. It is a native of the Arctic circle, and 
swims and dives with great facility. The female 
lays a single egg, nearly equalling that of a fowl, of 
a yellowish white colour with brown spots. The 
length of this species is about eleven inches. From 
behind the eye springs a tuft of white feathers, which 
hang down the side of the neck. General colour 
above, black, gradually blending into the white of 
the under parts. It is common on the north-western 
coast of America. 

Family SPHENISCIDiE (PENGUINS). 

The Prince ofCanino, in his ' Specchio generale del 
Sistema Ornitologico,' regards, we think correctly, 
the penguins as constituting a distinct family. 
They are birds utterly incapable of flight, having 
their paddle-wings with short rigid scale-like feathers 
disposed in regular order ; the tarsi are placed so 
completely behind that in resting the birds assume 
naturally an upright attitude ; the toes are webbed ; 
the tarsi very short and stout. These birds are es- 
sentially aquatic, seldom visiting the shore except 
during the breeding season, and their progress on 
land is very singular : while swimming they are 
immersed above the breast. All are natives of the 
colder seas of the southern hemisphere. The bones, 
unlike those of birds in general, are hard, compact, 
and heavy, and have no apertures for the admission 
of air ; those of the extremities containing an oily 
marrow. 

2030, 2031. — The Patagonian Penguin 

(Aptenodytes Patachonica). King Penguin; le 
grand Manchot of the French. 

This strange bird, which, among its own class, 
seems to be the analogue of the seals among mam- 
malia, is admirably adapted for oceanic habits. The 
vfhole of its osseous and muscular structure, its tough 
oily skin, and the character of its close and rigid 
plumage, at once indicate its mode of life. We may 
here observe that a very elaborate account of the 
anatomy of the penguin by Mr. Reid will be found 
in the ' Proceeds. Zool. Soc' for 1835. 

Though often alluded to by voyagers and navi- 
gators, the manners and habits of the Patagonian 
penguin have been very imperfectly understood. 
Its range of habitation is restricted to the latitudes 
south of the line, but within this boundary it is 
widely distributed, being abundant not only in the 
Straits of Magellan, and on all the adjacent islands, 
but extending to Au-stralia, through the islands of 
the South Pacific. If Clusius be right, the first 
discovery of these birds was by the Dutch, in 1598, 
who met with them on some islands near Port 
Desire, to which they came in order to breed ; and 
the sailors called them penguins, or pingouins, and 
the islands the Penguin Islands. "These singular 
birds," adds Clusius, " are without wings, having in 
their place two membranes, which hang down on 
each side like little arms ; their neck is thick and 
short, their skin hard and tough, like that of a 
hog ; the young weighed ten or twelve pounds, but 
the old ones about sixteen, and their size was 
generally that of a goose." Forster, however, 
mea.sured some thirty-nine inches long and thirty 
pounds in weight ; he remarks, that they were met 
with in troops on New Georgia, and that such was 
their stupidity, that they allowed themselves to be 
approached, so that the sailors knocked them down 
with sticks. (See ' Second Voyage of Captain Cook,' 
vol. iv.) Bougainville, who met witlj them in the 
Falkland Isles, observes that they love solitai-y and 
remote spots ; he also well describes their colour, 
and notices an attempt made to tame one and bring 
it to Europe, but for want of proper food it became 
meagre and died. Beyond the facts, however, that 
they associate in vast bodies, sitting upright on the 
beach, in close array ; that they are destitute of the 
fear of man, in lonely islands where man had never 
been before ; and that they are incapable of flight, 
Vol. II. 



we gain but little positive information from the 
relations of the earlier navigators. Fortunately, 
more attention is now directed to natural history 
than formerly ; and several individuals have recorded 
their personal observations on the habits of the 
animals met with on their journeys and voyages, to 
say nothing of naturalists who expressly travelled 
for the purpose of acquiring knowledge in this de- 
partment of science. In the 'Zool. Proc' lor 1835 
is an account of the penguin, by Mi-. G. Bennett, 
which we shall take the liberty of transcribing. 
This able naturalist, to whom science is indebted for 
many original observations, and whose v.ork, en- 
titled 'Wanderings,' &c., is well known, paid much 
attention to the Patagonian, or king penguin, which 
he met with in various islands in the high southern 
latitudes ; and he describes particularly a colony of 
these birds, which covers an extent of thirty or forty 
acres at the north end of Macquarrie Island, in the 
South Pacific Ocean. 

"The number of penguins collected together in 
this spot is immense, but it would be almost im- 
possible to guess at it with any near approach to 
truth, as, during the whole of the day and night, 
thirty or forty thousand of them are continually 
landing, and an equal number going to sea. They 
are arranged, when on shore, in as compact a manner 
and in as regular ranks as a regiment of soldiers; 
and are classed with the greatest order, the young 
birds being in one situation, the moulting birds in 
another, the sitting hens in a third, the clean birds 
in a fourth, &c. ; and so strictly do birds in similar 
condition congregate, that should a bird that is 
moulting intrude itself among those which are clean, 
it is immediately ejected from among them. 

" The females hatch the eggs by keeping them 
close between their thighs; and if approached 
during the time of incubation, move away, carrying 
the eggs with them. At this time the male bird 
goes to sea and collects food for the female, which 
becomes very fat. After the young is hatched, both 
parents go to sea, and bring home food for it ; it 
soon becomes so fat as scarcely to be able to walk, 
the old birds getting very thin. They sit quite 
upright in the roosting-places, and walk in the 
erect position until they arrive at the beach, when 
they throw themselves on their breasts in order to 
encounter the very heavy sea met with at their land 
ing-place." 

Although the appearance of penguins generally 
indicates the neighbourhood of land, Mr. G. 
Bennett cited several instances of their occurrence 
at a considerable distance from any known land. 

The observations of Mr. Bennett are confirmed 
by Lieut. Liardet, from whom was obtained the 
specimen dissected by Mr. Reid.'* They assemble 
on the shore, herd together in vast bodies, forming 
a dense phalanx, all moving and acting in concert 
together; one party going otF to sea, — another 
party returning, — another remaining in array on the 
beach. They appear to be very peaceable among 
each other, but are sometimes observed to fight, 
striking with the posterior edge of the wing. Should 
a person attempt to lay hold of them, they not only 
use their wings but their beak, which is a far more 
formidable weapon, and capable of inflicting a 
severe wound. Cuttle-fishes appear to constitute 
the greater part of their food ; in the stomach of 
the specimen dissected was found a considerable 
number of the horny pariot-like beaks of these 
molluscous animals. Their mode of walking is very 
singular ; it is a sort of awkward waddle, the body 
turning with the action of the limbs in motion, 
which cross each other alternately; it is, in fact, 
an "over-handed" mode of progression, if the word 
be allowed, producing a strange and ludicrous effect. 
We see a tendency to it in the waddle of the duck 
and other swimming-birds. During the period of 
incubation the females all assemble together, sitting 
upright on a kind of general nest of loosely-arranged 
sticks, which they carry to the selected spot in 
their bills, and flourish if then approached, as if in 
defiance of the intruder on their secluded haunt. 
They lay but one egg, of a whitish colour, and twice 
the size of that of the goose ; this they carry between 
their thighs, supporting it beneath by the short stiff 
tail, which is bent underneath it. 'The young are 
covered with thick soft down, of a brownish grey ; 
in this state the bird is the woolly penguin of Latham, 
which must not be regarded as a distinct species, 
but as the king penguin in nestling plumage. At 
night they utter loud moaning noises in concert, the 
general chorus of voices resounding to a great 
distance, and clearly distinguishable from the roar 
of the surf or lashing of the waves. The flesh of the 
penguin is rank, and unfit for food ; both the muscles 
and bones are oily, and the skin is lined with a thick 
layer of oleaginous fat ; yet more than five hundred 
were taken in New Year's Island (near Staaten 
Island), as food for the crew, by the sailors in 



* This specimen was captured at East FalicUnd Isle, in latitr.de 
51° 3B' south. 



Captain Cook's ship (' Last Voyage, vol. i.), who 
found them occupying that spot in thousands. 

There is something in the strange figure and 
aspect of the penguin well agreeing with the wild, 
lonely, remote islands in which it congregates. In 
beholding: a spot on the surface of our globe, ocean- 
girt, and uninhabited by man, tenanted by thousands 
of these birds, which for ages — generation after 
generation — have been the uninterrupted occupiers 
of the place, we are thrown back upon primeval 
days ; and we involuntarily recur to the now extinct 
dodo, and the idea forces itself upon us, that this 
bird also may, at some future time, become utteily 
annihilated. 

The general plumage of the penguin is short, 
close, glossy, compact, and water-proof; the bill is 
long, slender, and somewhat bent at the tip; a 
longitudinal furrow runs along each side of the 
upper mandible, down which the. feathers of the 
forehead proceed to a considerable distance, en- 
tirely concealing the nostrils. The feet consi-st of 
three toes, with intervening webs, but a fourth 
rudimentary toe is seated above the base of the first 
or inner toe on each foot. The eye is small, viewed 
externally ; but its globe is really large, and it is 
furnished with a strong membrana nictitans. 

The height of this species is upwards of three 
feet ; its colours are beautifully disposed and con- 
trasted. The bill is black, except the base of the 
under mandible, which is rich reddish purple, with 
a plum-like bloom, gradually merging into dusky 
and ultimately into black ; the top of the head and 
throat are black, bounded by a belt of fine pure 
golden yellow, which commences broad on the sides 
of the head, and becomes narrow in its progress as 
it runs down to the middle of the neck, where it 
passes onwards till it blends with the silvery white 
of the under surface ; the colour of the upper 
surface of the body and paddles is glossy bluish 
grey ; each feather, if examined, being dusky black 
margined with bluish grey, and it is from the over- 
lapping of the feathers on each other that one 
uniform tint is produced; the tail, which is short, 
and indeed can scarcely be called a tail, consists of 
slender stiflf elastic feathers, bent under the bird, as 
it sits up on the shore. 

Fig. 2032 represents the Head, and Fig. 2033 the 
Foot of the King Penguin. 

2034. — The Crested Penguin 

{Eudypes chrysocoma, Vieillot). Catarrhactes chry- 
socoma, Brisson ; Aptenodytes chrysocoma, Graelin. 

This beautiful species inhabits the Falkland 
Islands, the shores of Patagonia, the island of 
Tristan d'Acunha, and is often found far out at sea, 
swimming in pairs. Lesson killed individuals in 
43° 8' 38" S. lat., and 5G° 50' 49" W. long. It has 
obtained the name of jumping penguin, from its 
habit of leaping quite out of the mater, not only in 
order to avoid obstacles, but apparently as if for 
sport. It is le Gorfou sauteur of Cuvier. 

The crested penguin, says Latham, " appears to 
be more lively than the others, but, in fact, they are 
stupid birds, so as to admit of being knocked down 
with sticks when on land, and are frequently so 
regardless as to suffer themselves to be taken by the 
hand. When enraged they erect their crests in a 
very beautiful manner. They make their nests 
among those of the pehcan tribe, living in tolerable 
harmony with them." " They are, however, mostly 
seen by themselves, seldom mixing with other 
penguins, and are often met with on the outer shores 
where they have been bred. The females incubate 
in burrows, which they easily form by means of 
their bill, throwing out the earth with their feet ; in 
these holes the egg is deposited on the bare ground." 
" We learn, from the ' Embassy to China,' that these 
birds were found in vast abundance in the island of 
Amsterdam, often basking and standing erect in 
company with the seals." Captain Carmichael, in 
his description of the island of Tristan d'Acunha, 
states, respecting this species, that it " conceals 
itself among the long grass, and in the bottom of 
ravines where they open upon the shore. Here 
these birds assemble in countless multitudes, and 
keep up a moaning noise, which can be heard at a 
great distance from the mountain." He adds that 
" in many birds I had an opportunity of examining 
the pupil was contracted to <i mere dot." (' Linn. 
Trans.' v. 12.) 

The crested penguin is twenty-three inches in 
length ; the bill is red, with a dark furrow running 
on each side to the tip ; the upper mandible, three 
inches in length, is curved at the end; the head, 
neck, back, sides, and wings externally are black : 
the whole of the under surface is white ; over each 
eye runs a stripe of pale golden yellow feathers, which 
lengthen behind into a pendent crest nearly four 
inches long, and can be erected at pleasure; the 
feathers on each side of the head above this crest 
are longer than the others, and stand upwards; the 
female has a yellow streak above each eye, but the 
crest is not developed ; legs orange-coloured. 

I 2 






V"5. 





Z032 — Hod of King Pengnin. 



MSO.— Hitagonim IVngnin. 





S03S.— Jackan Penguin. 



2031. — Patagonian Penguins. 




«03».-Gtebe Petrel. 





60 



2033 —Foot of King Pen^in. 



2034.— Crested Penguin. 




2040.— Pintado Petrel. 




2041. — Manks Sheanrater. 





2038.— Head and Foot of Fulmar. 




2043.— Head and Foot of Stormy Petrel. 




2046.— Albatnn. 




2045.— Blue Petrel. 



8042.— Stormy Petxel. 





2030.— Great Black Petrel. 



2044.- Wilson's Petrel. 



61 



62 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Petrels. 



. 2035.— The Jackass Pksguin 
(Sphatiscus denursui). This species inhabits the 
same extent of range as the two preceding, and is 
very abundant at the Falkland Islands, and the Cape 
of Good Hope. Captain Fitz-Roy obe^^•ed it in 
great abimdance at Noir Island. "Multitudes of 
penguins," he observes, " were swarming together in 
some parts of the island, among the bushes and 
' tussoc ' (thick rushy ^rass) near the shore, having 
gone there lor the purposes of moulting and rearing 
their young. Tliey were very valiant in self-defence, 
and ran open-mouthed, by dozens, at any one who 
invaded their territory, little knowing how soon a 
stick would scatter them on the ground. The young 
were good eating, but the others proved to be black 
and tough when cooked. The manner in which 
they feed their young is curious and rather amusing. 
The old bird gets on a little eminence, and makes a 
great noise (.between quacking and braying), hold- 
ing its head up in the air, a.s if it were haranguing 
the pcnguinneiy, while the young one stands close 
to it, but a little lower. Tlie' old bird, having con- 
tinued its clatter for about a minute, puts its head 
down and opens its mouth widely, into which the 
young one thrusts its head, and then appears to suck 
from the throat of its mother for a minute or two, 
after which the clatter is repeated, and the young 
one is again fed ; this continues for about ten mi- 
nutes. I observed some which were moulting make 
the same noise, and then apparently swallow what 
they thus supplied themselves with ; so in this way, 
I suppose, they are furnished with subsistence 
during the time they cannot seek it in the water." 
(' Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle,' King.) 

Mr. Darwin, who found this bird at the Falkland 
Islands, gives the following interesting account of 
its courage and habits. "One day," he says, " hav- 
ing placed myself between a penguin (Aptenodytes 
demersa) and the water, I was much amused by 
watching its habits. It was a brave bird ; and, till 
reaching the sea, it regularly fought and drove me 
backwards. Nothing less than heavy blows would 
have stopped him ; every inch gained he firmly kept 
.standing close before me, erect and determined. 
When thus opposed, he continually rolled his head 
from side to side, in a very odd manner, as if the 
power of vision only lay in the anterior and basal 
part of each eye. This bird is commonly called the 
jackass penguin, from its habit, while on shore, of 
throwing its head backwards, and making a loud 
strange noise, very like the braying of that animal ; 
but while at sea and undisturbed, its note is very 
deep and solemn, and is often heai-d in the night 
time. In diving, its little plumeless wings are used 
as fins; but on the land, as front legs. When crawl- 
ing (it may be said on four legs) through the tussocks, 
or on the side of a grassy clifF, it moved so very 
quickly that it might readily have been mistaken for 
a quadruped. When at sea, and fishing, it comes 
to the surface, for the purpose of breathing, with 
such a spring, and dives again so instantaneously, 
that I defy any one at first sight to be sure that it is 
not a fish leaping for sport." (' Voyages of the Ad- 
venture and Beagle ;* Darwin, ' Researches m Geo- 
logy and Natural History.') 

In this species the bill is compressed, straight, 
and irregularly furrowed at the base ; the end of 
the upper mandible is hooked, that of the lower 
truncate. The upper surface, cheeks, and throat, 
black ; the under parts, and a stripe above the eye, 
white ; a black mark commencing on the chest runs 
along each side. 

Other smaller species are known, of which one is 
found in thousands on the shores of Australia : it 
lays two eggs. 

Family PROCELLARID^ (PUFFINS, 
PETRELS, &c.). 

Well known to seamen are these birds, which ap- 
pear in multitudes far from land, wheeling and 
skimming over the rolling billows of the ocean, on 
the surface of which they rest when wearied, and 
from which they derive their subsistence. With the 
appearance of some, superstition has associated 
storms and shipwreck, and many a weather-beaten 
tar, who feared no mortal foe, has quailed at the 
ominous presence of Mother Carey's chickens, which 
seemed to have sprung at once from out of the 
deep. 

In these birds the upper mandible, which is fur- 
rowed into distinct segments, terminates in an arched 
and abruptly hooked nail, or derlrum, and the under 
mandible terminates also in a sort of hard distinct 
nail. The nostrils are more or less decidedly tubu- 
lar, and sometimes the tubes are united together. 
The anterior toes are webbed ; the hind-toe is either 
wanting or rudimentary. The flight very buoyant. 
Many species eject a quantity of oil from the nos- 
trils with considerable force, and this is their usual, 
and perhaps only, mode of defence. Tlieir bodies 
are, as it were, saturated with oil, from the nature 
of the food on which they subsist. 



2036.— Thk Grebk Pktebl 
{Pekamoides ririnatrix, Lac6pede). Haladroma 
urinatrix, Illiger ; Procellaria urinatrix, Gmelin ; 
Puffinura Garnoti, Lesson. 

In this genus, as in Procellaria, the bill is com- 
posed of distinct pieces soldered together; the 
nostrils are tubular, separated from each other by a 
simple partition, and open above. Wings pointed ; 
tail small. Tarsi moderate ; hind-toe wantmg. 

This species abounds in flocks on the coast of 
Peru, where it was seen by M. Garnot. It flies 
moderately well, skimming the waves in a precipi- 
tous manner, but prefers to rest on the surface, and 
like the grebes, or puffins, dives admirably in search 
of its prey, which consists of small fishes and Crus- 
tacea. In length this bird measures about nine 
inches ; the upper surface is blackish brown, with a 
slight glaze of blue on the top of the back ; the 
throat and chest are of a lustrous white ; the sides 
are greyish white. We liave no accounts of its 
nidification. 

2037.— Thk Fulmar Petrel 
(Procellaria glacialis). Fulmarius glacialis. Leach ; 
le P6trel fulmar, ou de I'lsle de St. Kilda, of 
Buffon ; Gwylaii y Graig of the ancient British. 

The character of the head and foot of the genus 
Procellaria, or subgenus Fulmarius of Leach, are 
well depicted in Fig. 2036. The nostrils are tu- 
bular, the tube being elevated and opening by a 
-single rounded orifice ; the tip is greatly hooked. 
A sharp claw exists in the place of a hind-toe. 

The Fulmar Petrel is a native of the Arctic 
regions, and abounds at all times in Davis's Straits 
and Baffin's Bay. It is, however, migratory, and 
Major Sabine states that during the time of the de- 
tention of the ships by ice in Jacob's Bay, lat. 71", 
from the 24th of June to the 3rd of July, fulmars 
were passing in a continual stream to the northward, 
in numbers inferior only to the flocks of the Pas- 
senger Pigeon in North America. In more southern 
latitudes the fulmar is only seen as a winter visitor, 
extending its journey along the coast of Norway, 
and appearing occasionally on those of Holland and 
France ; yet there are certain spots within the limits 
of the British Islands where it breeds in great abund- 
ance, namely, the rocky and pr^'cinitous St. Kilda, 
and others of the western isles oi Scotland ; and, 
according to Mr. Gould, it also resorts to the 
Orkneys, &c., though St. Kilda is its favourite re- 
sidence. Here the fulmars take up their abode in 
the holes and caverns of the rocks. The female 
lays a single large white, and very brittle, egg ; and 
the young, which are hatched in June, are fed with 
oil disgorged by the parents. These birds consti- 
tute a source of emolument to the inhabitants. As 
soon as the young are fledged, the cragsmen, at the 
risk of their lives, scale the precipitous cliffs, and 
capture them in great numbers for the sake of the 
down, feathers, and oil. ''No bird," says Pennant, 
"is of such use to the islanders as this: the fulmar 
supplies them with oil tor their lamps, down for their 
beds, a delicacy for their table, a balm for their 
wounds, and a medicine for their distempers. , The 
fulmar is also a certain prognostication of the change 
of wind ; for if it comes to land no west wind is ex- 
pected for some time, and the contrary when it re- 
turns and keeps the sea." 

The food of this species consists of the flesh and 
blubber of dead whales, seals, and fishes, mollusks, 
and Crustacea. According to Captain James Ross, 
these birds are of great importance to the whale- 
fishers, by guiding them to those places where the 
whales are most numerous; and they give notice of 
the first appearance of these animals at the surface 
of the water, by crowding to the spot from all 
quarters. They have been seen in multitudes on the 
floating carcass of these giants of the ocean, tearing 
up the skin with their hooked beaks, and gorging 
on the delicious blubber. Off Newfoundland the 
fulmar is a constant attendant upon the fishing 
vessels, in order to obtain the livers and ofi'al of the 
cod-fish. 

The fulmar measures sixteen inches in length. 
The head, neck, all the lower parts, rump, and tail, 
are pure white. Back and wings bluish ash ; quills 
bright blackish grey. Bill yellow ; legs yellow, 
tinged with grey. The young have the white tinged 
with ash colour, and the upper plumage brownish. 

2039.— The Great Black Petrel 

{Procellaria equinoctinlis). P. gigantea, Gmelin. 

This species tenants the southern seas, and, ac- 
cording to Mr. Darwin, is a common bird both in 
the inland channels of the Chonos Archipelago (off 
the west coast of Patiisronia south of Chiloe Island), 
and out in the open ocean. It is termed by the 
I Spaniards Quebrantahuesos, or Break-bones, the 
name for the csprey, and in its habits and manner 
! of flight it clo.-iely resembles the albatross. " As 
i with the latter bird a person may watch it for hours 
ij without seeing on what it feeds." "The Break- 



bones, however, is a rapacious bird, for it was ob- 
served by some of the officers at Port St. Antonio 
chasing a diver ; the bird tried to escape both by 
diving and flying, and was at last killed by a blow 
on its head. At Port St. Julian also these great 
petrels were seen killing and devouring young gulls." 
The plumage of this species is blackish. 

2040. — The Pintado Petrel, or Cape Pigeox 
(Daption Capensis). Procellaria Capensis, Linn. 

This species is spread over the whole of the 
southern nemisphere. "From the meridian of the 
island of Tristan d'Acunha to that of the island of 
St. Paul's," says Captain King, ''on about the pa- 
rallel of 40° south latitude, we were daily surrounded 
by a multitude of oceanic birds : of the Petrel tribe 
the Cape Pigeon (Pr. Capensis, Linn.) was most 
abundant ; but the Proc. vittata (vel coerulea) fre- 
quently was observed, as was also a small black 
petrel, which I do not recollect to have seen before." 
(' Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1834, p. 128.) In iU habits this 
species resembles the rest of its race. Its plumage 
is variegated with brown and white. Total length 
about thirteen inches ; that of the tube of the nostrils 
half an inch. 

2041. — The Manks Shearwater 
{Piiffinus Anijlorwn). Shearwater; Shearwater 
Petrel. The genus Puffinus is characterized by the 
length and slenderness of the bill, and by the tubu- 
lar nostrils having two distinct truncated openings. 
The wings are long. Hind-toe represented by a 
straight nail. 

The Manks Shearwater in the time of Willughby 
and Pennant was abundant in the Isle of Man, or 
rather on that islet termed the Calf of Man, at the 
south end of the island, and divided from it by a 
naiTow channel. In the present day it is almost 
entirely deserted by these birds, which still resort to 
the Orkneys, arriving in February or March, and 
leaving with their young in August for the coast of 
Spain, the Mediten-anean, &c. They breed in holes 
scratched in the earth, among outcropping rocks, 
on bold headlands ; and also make use of deserted 
rabbit burrows, and deep crevices in the rocks. The 
female lays a single white egg of a rounded form. 
During the day the shearwaters remain quiet in 
their burrows, whence they emerge when evening 
twilight approaches, and, sailing out to sea, procure 
food for themselves and their young. They feed on 
all kinds of marine animal substances in a state of 
decomposition, and of an oleaginous quality, and 
nourish their young by disgorging oil into their 
throat. When captured they annoy their assailant 
by ejecting quantities of oil from their tubular 
nostrils. 

According to Mr. Gould the shearwater is abund- 
ant during the summer on the coast of South Wales, 
whence he received on one occasion four dozens, all 
apparently captured by the hand. It is rare in 
Norway, but common on the banks of Newfound- 
land. 

The shearwater flies rapidly, skimming over the 
surface of the sea, whence it picks up whatever 
offers for food. While thus engaged it uses its 
feet as a support on the water, and while skimming 
along strikes the water with them, to aid the impetus 
required for cutting through the curling crests of 
the waves. The limbs have a very backward po- 
sition. 

Formerly thousands of the young of this species 
were taken in the Calf of Man. for the purpose of 
supplying the table ; they were salted and barrelled, 
but the flesh was rank and fishy. The feathers 
were valued. In the Orkneys, according to Low, 
it is the main object of pursuit with the rock-men, 
who endanger their lives in climbing the most awful 
precipices for the eggs and young of the sea- fowl. 
Pennant states that in his time they were salted in 
these islands for winter provision, and boiled with 
cabbage. The Manks shearwater is about thirteen 
inches long. All the upper parts are glossy black ; 
the lower parts pure white. Bill blackish brown ; 
legs brown ; webs yellowish. The tarsi, as in the 
true petrels, are very much compressed, a form 
which, doubtless, greatly facilitates their practice of 
half running along, half flying over, the surface of 
the waves while in quest of food. 

2042.— The Stormy Petrel 

(Thalassidroma pelagica). Petrel Tempete, Tem- ^ 
minck; Kleinster Sturmvogel of Meyer; Accello 
delle "Tempeste of the Italians ; Cas gan Longwr 
of the ancient British ; Mother Carey's Chicken, 
Stormfinch, Spency, Mitty, Witch, &c., of the 
English. 

In the genus Thalassidroma the bill is rather short, 
compressed, and hooked in front of the tubular 
nostrils ; the wings are long and pointed ; the tarsi 
are rather long, slender, and compressed ; the hind- 
toe is reduced to a minute nail. The Stormy Petrels 
are the smallest of the web-footed race of birds, and 
are distributed over every part of the ocean. 



Petrkls.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



63 



The present species is found along the coasts of 
North America, and is also common along the coasts 
of Scotland and England ; it is rather abundant in 
the Orkneys and Hebrides. Mr. Selby states that 
it is to be seen upon the seas surrounding Great 
Britain at all seasons of the year, but he doubts the 
very extensive range some writers have assigned it, 
other closely allied species having been mistaken 
for it ; and in this view he is confirmed by Mr. 
Gould, who, in a letter to the Zool. Soc, dated Van 
Diemen's Land, May 10, 1839 (see ' Proceeds.' 1839), 
relating some details relative to several oceanic 
birds met with dunng his voyage, says, " Imme- 
diately off the Land's End Wilson's storm-petrel 
(Th. Wilsonii) was seen in abundance, and con- 
tinued to accompany the ship throughout the bay. 
The little storm-petrel (Th. pelagica) was also seen, 
but in far less numbers ; both species disappeared 
on approaching the latitude of Madeira, their place 
there being occupied by another species, which I 

took to be Thai. Bulweri As I had every 

reason to expect, I found the Australian seas in- 
habited by their own peculiar storm-petrels, four 
distinct species of which I have already observed 
since leaving the Cape." 

The flight of the petrel is very swift, and on wings 
even more rapid than those of the swallow, it wheels 
round the labouring ship, descends into the trough 
of the waves, and mounts over their curling crests, 
secure amidst the strife of waters ; often with wings 
expanded is it seen to stand, as it were, on the sum- 
mit of the billow and dip its bill into Ihe water, no 
doubt in order to pick up some small crastaceous 
animal : and again, on vigorous wings, it pursues its 
way. Seldom does it settle on the waters to swim, 
and it is totally incapable of diving, as many have 
erroneously supposed. During a gale at sea the 
petrel is all animation. 

" Tip and down, up and down, 
P'rom tlie base of the wave to the billow's crown, 
Amidst tlie flashing and feathery foam 
The Stormy Petrel finds a home ; 
A home, if such a place can be 
For lier who lives on the wide, wide sea. 
On the craggy ice. in the frozen air ; 
And only seeketh her rocky lair 
To warm her young and teach them spring 
At once o'er tne waves on tlieir stormy wing." 

13. CoKNWALL. 

We agree with Mr. Selby that the great motives 
which induce the petrel and other sea-birds to fol- 
low a ship in its course, are the refuse which is 
thrown from time to time overboard, and the abund- 
ance of small marine insects, mollusks, &c., which 
are brought within its reach by the action of the 
vessel as it ploughs the briny waves. The stormy 
petrel breeds in the northern and western isles of 
Scotland, and on the rocky coast of Cornwall : it 
incubates on a single egg (perhaps two eggs) of a 
pure white, in the holes of rocks, in the burrows of 
rats or rabbits, and under large stones. The female 
utters a low purring noise while brooding over her 
egg or young. The latter remains in its retreat for 
some weeks, till fully feathered and capable of 
flight, and during this time is fed by the parents 
with oily matter ejected from their stomachs. 
Though the petrel is seen out at sea, particularly 
in gloomy weather, when the lowering clouds 
threaten a storm, yet it is to a great degree noc- 
turnal in its habits, especially during the time of in- 
cubation and of rearing its young. Till evening sets 
in it remains quiet in its retreat, and then sallies 
forth, making a shrill whistling, as well as the 
purring noise before alluded to. So oily is the 
body of the petrel, that the inhabitants of the 
Ferroe and other islands sometimes convert it into 
a lamp by drawing a wick of cotton through the 
body, which will continue to bum till the oil be 
exhausted. 

The length of this species is about five and a half 
inches ; the general colour is sooty black ; tail and 
quills pure black ; a patch behind the thighs, and a 
bar across the upper tail coverts, white ; a few of 
the wing coverts and scapularies slightly edged with 
white. Fig. 2043 displays the characters of the 
Head and Feet of Thalassidroma. 

2044. — Wilson's Petrel 

TImlassidroma Wilsonii, Bonap.). This species, 
which exceeds the preceding in size, measuring six 
and a quarter inches, is, as we learn from Mr. Gould's 
observations, abundant off the coast of Cornwall ; 
it is common along the whole of America to Cape 
Horn ; and particularly so on the coasts of Chili, 
Brazil, and the United States. It is said by Tem- 
minck to occur but rarely at the Cape of Good 
Hope, and to show itself accidentally off the coasts 
of Spain and in the Mediterranean. According to 
Nuttall, this species breeds in great numbers on the 
rocky shores of the Bahama and the Bermuda islands, 
and along some parts of the coast of East Florida 
and Cuba; and, on the authority of Audubon, on the 
mud and sand islands off Cape Sable in Nova 
Scotia, burrowing downwards from the surface to the 



depth of a foot or more. In other places they make 
the holes and fissures of rocks their retreat. The 
eggs are three and of translucent whiteness. The 
habits of Wilson's Petrel are the same as those of its 
tribe in general. 

" On the edge of soundings," says Nuttall 
(' Manual'), " as the vessel loses sight of the head- 
lands, flocks of these dark, swifl-flying, and ominou^ 
birds begin to shoot around the vessel, and finally 
take their station in her foaming wake. In this 
situation, as humble dependants, they follow for 
their pittance of fare, constantly and keenly watch- 
ing the agitated surge for floating raollusca, and 
are extremely gratified with any fat kind of animal 
matter thrown overboard, which they instantly dis- 
cover, however small the morsel, or mountainous 
and foaming the raging wave on which it may hap- 
pen to float. On making such discovery, they sud- 
denly stop in their airy and swallow-like flight, and 
whirl instantly down to the waters. Sometimes 
nine or ten thus crowd together like a flock of 
chickens scrambling for the same morsel ; at the 
same time pattering on the water with their feet, as 
if walking on the surface, they balance themselves 
with gently fluttering and outspread wings, and 
often dip down their heads to collect the sinking 
object in pursuit. On other occasions, as if seeking 
relief from their almost perpetual exercise of flight, 
they jerk and hop widely over the water, rebound- 
ing as their feet touch the surface with great agility 
and alertness. There is something cheerful and 
amusing in the sight of these little voyaging flocks 
steadily following after the vessel so light and un- 
concerned across the dreary ocean. Dtuing a gale 
it is truly interesting to witness their intrepidity and 
address. Unappalled by the storm that strikes terror 
into the breast of the mariner, they are seen cours- 
ing wildly and rapidly over the waves, descending 
their sides, then mounting with the breaking surge 
which threatens to burst over their heads, sweeping 
through the hollow waves as in a sheltered valley, 
and again mounting with the rising billow, they trip 
and jerk sportively and securely on the roughest sea, 
defying the horrors of the storm, and, like magic 
beings, seem to take delight in braving overwhelming 
dangei-s." 

2045.— The Blue Petrel 

(Prion vittatus). Procellaria vittata, and coerulea, 
Gmelin ; Pachyptila vittata, Illiger. 

In this genus the bill is strong, stout, and wide, 
and much depressed ; the upper mandible hooked ; 
nostrils two short united tubes, the edges of the 
mandible furnished internally with minute cartila- 
ginous laminae ; a guttural pouch between the two 
branches of the lower jaw ; wings long and pointed ; 
a minute nail in the place of the hind-toe. The 
tongue is thick ; the mouth dilatable. 

The Blue Petrel was first discovered by Forster. 
During the voyage of the Coquille many were cap- 
tured in 58" S. lat. The habits of this bird much 
resemble those of the petrels and shearwaters. Mr. 
Gould notices it among the troops of sea-fowl which 
followed his vessel for some thousands of miles, and 
of which he says, " Until I had ascertained that they 
were nocturnal, it was a matter of surprise to me 
how the birds which were seen around the vessel at 
nightfall were to be observed crossing our wake at 
daybreak on the following morning, the ship having 
frequently run a distance of nearly one hundred 
miles during the night." 

The total length of this species is about twelve 
inches ; the upper surface is ashy blue ; a black 
band cuts across the wings and tail-coverts : under 
parts white. 

2046. — The Albatross 

{Diomedea exulans). In the genus Diomedea the 
beak is large and powerful, with a concave sweep 
from the base, and rising again towards the point, 
which is boldly and abruptly hooked ; a furrow runs 
on each side of the upper mandible from the base 
to the cutting edge of the terminal hook : in these 
lateral furrows are the nostrils, standing out in the 
form of short tubes of horn directed obliquely up- 
wards ; they are nearly basal and widely separated 
from each other. Toes, three before, and webbed, 
none behind. Wings extremely long and narrow. 

Several species of albatross are well known and 
described, but none equal in size the great wander- 
ing .albatross (Diomedea exulans), which often 
weighs upwards of twenty pounds, and ordinarily 
measures from ten to eleven feet, and sometimes 
even fourteen feet, in the expanse of its wing. It is 
not until the voyager passes the line, and enters 
within the latitudes of the southern seas, that he finds 
himself within the range of the albatross, which on 
outspread wings sails around the vessel, or sweeps 
over the surface in chase of the flying-fish, which 
the bonito or albacore are impetuously pursuing be- 
low. These birds are extremely voracious, they will 
swallow a fish of four or five pounds weight ; they 
feed also on mollusks, blubber, and the offal thrown 



overboard of vessels. The vast extent of wing 
which the albatross possesses renders it a matter of 
some difiiculty for this bird to raise itself from the 
surface of the water on which it is reposing ; it has to 
skim half flying, half running, for a considerable dis- 
tance before it can fairly mount, but once on the 
wing it sweeps majestically through the air on ex- 
panded pinions, and wheels around in large circles, 
watching the waters beneath ; suddenly it plunges 
down amidst the billows, covered with their dashing 
spray, and rises again ; and though " the stormy 
winds may blow," makes its way as if unaffected by 
the tempest. 

Though, as we have said, it is in the southern 
hemisphere that the albatross abounds, yet it would 
appear that the European coasts are occasionally 
visited by this bird, and that in the northern lati- 
tudes it is even abundant. Vast flocks of the alba- 
tross are seen towards the end of June about 
Behring's Straits, and Kamtschatka, frequenting 
chiefly the inner sea, the Kurile Islands, and the 
bay of Pentschinensi ; they are doubtless attracted 
thither by the enormous shoals of fish, the migratory 
movements of which they follow. The natives of 
Kamtschatka catch these birds by means of a hook 
attached to a cord, and baited with a fish, which they 
greedily swallow : the intestines are blown, and 
used as buoys for nets, and the long, hollow wing- 
bones as tobacco-pipes ; the flesh is tough and 
dry. 

Mr. G. Bennett, in his ' Wanderings,' gives an ad- 
mirable account of the habits of the albatross, far 
too long for insertion : " It is pleasing," he says, 
" to ob.serve this superb bird sailing in the air in 
graceful and elegant movements, seemingly excited 
by some invisible power, for there is rarely any 
movement of the wings seen, after the fii-st and fre- 
quent impulses given, when the creature elevates 
itself in the air; it rises and falls as if some 
concealed power guided its various motions, without 
any muscular exertion of its own ; and then descend- 
ing, it sweeps close to the stein of the ship, as if it 
were monarch of all it surveyed. It is from the 
very little muscular exertion used by these birds, 
that they are capable of sustaining such long flights 
without repose." Captain Grey, in his Journal 
(vol. i. p. 32), gives a nearly similar account of the 
"lordly and graceful albatross," that holds "its ho- 
liday in the stormy gale." 

Captain Carmichael (' Linn. Trans.' vol."xii.) found 
the great albatross and three other species breeding 
at Tristan d'Acunha ; the great albatross raises no 
nest, but merely selects some slight concavity for the 
reception of a single large white egg. It nourishes 
its young by disgorging the oily contents of its sto- 
mach, and when approached discharges through the 
nostrils a deluge of fetid oily fluid on the intruder, 
at the same time clattering with its beak ; otherwise 
it makes no defence, and is so fearless as not even 
to move out of the way for the passage of a party 
of men ; and when pulled oft' the nest, will either 
remain quietly by, or instantly return to its egg. 
Some of the other species raise a nest of mud. 

The plumage of the great albatross is subject to 
variation; the head, neck, back, and wings are ge- 
nerally more or less tinged with grey ; the rest of 
the plumage white ; the bill is pale horn colour with 
a tinge of yellow; feet deep flesh colour. 

Family LARID^ (GULLS, TERNS, &c.). 

These are for the most part oceanic birds, distin 
guislied by great powers of flight. They rest upon 
the waters, and plunge amidst the curling waves 
in pursuit of their prey, but do not dive. 

2047, 2048.— The Common Tern 

(Sterna Hirundo). Pierre Garin of the French ; 
Fionco and Rondine di mare of the Italians; 
Meerschwalbe of the Germans ; y Forwennol fwyaf, 
and Yscraen of the ancient British ; Sea Swallow, 
English. 

In the genus Sterna the bill is long, compressed 
and pointed ; the wings are extremely elongated and 
acuminate ; the three anterior toes are moderately 
webbed, the hind-toe is free ; tail forked. 

Fig. 2049 represents the Head and Foot of Sterna. 

Formed for rapid and protracted flight, these birds 
skim over the waves with extraordinary speed, 
whence the English name sea-swallows, and that of 
the French hirondelles de mer. 

The common tern is found in abundance along 
our southern shores, and those of the adjacent parts 
of the Continent, as well as of Asia and Africa ; ac- 
cording both to M. Temminck and the Prince of 
Musignano, it extends its range to the coasts of 
North America. It flies in flocks, uttering a harsh 
note, and often ascends creeks and rivei-s to a consi- 
derable distance from the sea. Nothing can exceed 
the address and suddenness with which this bird 
darts upon such fish as approach the surface, preci- 
pitating upon its unwary victims with unerring cer- 
tainty, and rising again to pursue its course, as if 
unchecked by the eft'ort. This species breeds upon 




(Ml.-SciMa-UU. 



tM«.— H«ad ud Foot of Tern. 




S058.— Arctic Skaa Gull. 




I0S2.— Head of Scison-ini. 



JOiO.— Noddv. 










SOM.— H««d of SoiaMB-biU. 



80S3,— Dill of :5ci!iMI>-biU. 



2099.— Gmt Bluk-buked Gali. 




/.^ 




ft^n^)>i>-'A>vv 







[M48.— CominOB Trn». 



tOM.— Gizzard of Sea-Metr. 



2037.— Langtiing Gulls. 



64 






:^ 



2060.— Gannet. 



2059.— Tropic Bird. 



SOM.— Bwby, or Brown Ouinet. 





4063.— Fowlers of St. Kilib. 



2064.— Pelicans. 




tMl. — Gixiard of G&nnet. 



No. 59. — Vol.. II. 




2069.— Foot of Pelican. 



[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 




!0M.— Hod of Pelican. 



65 



66 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Gulls. 



the Muid or thint^le above high-water mark, the fe- 
male depositing two or three epp in a slight cavity, 
upon which she seldom broods dfuring the middle of 
the day, if the weather be sultry, but sits on them at 
night. The young birds are at first clothed in mot- 
tled down, and are carefully guarded by the parents, 
who are watchful and clamorous in their defence, 
and sweep close around the head of the intruder. 
The bill of the species is red. passing into black at 
the lip. The top of the head is black, becoming 
mixed with white m winter; back and wings delicate 
ashy grey ; rump and fail white ; chest pearl grey. 
The outer web of the outer tail-feather, and tirst 
quill-feather, blackish ; legs file red. Length four- 
teen inches. 

The common tern is migratory in its habits, pass- 
ing southwards in winter. In the northern seas of 
our island it is rare, its place being supplied by the 
Arctic and Roseate Terns. The Sterna Hirundo of 
Wilson is a distinct species, and has been re-named 
by the Prince of Musignano as the Sterna Wilsonii ; 
its habitat is the coast of Nottli America. 

2050.— The Noddy 
(Amous stolidus, Leach). Megalopterus stolidus, 
Boie : Sterna siolida, Linn. 

This species is only an accidental visitor to the 
coasts of Europe, its principal range of habitat being 
confined to the Gulf of Mexico, the coasts of Flori- 
da, the Bahamas, the Tortugas, and the neighbour- 
hood of St. Helena. Two specimens were shot off 
Wexfoi-d in Ireland, in 1830. It is familiar to all 
mariners who navigate in the equatorial regions, 
and is often seen in flocks hundreds of leagues from 
land ; assiduously pursuing its finny prey, and utter- 
ing loud and discordant cries. Occasionally it 
alights on vessels, and suffers itself to be captured, 
probably being exhausted by fatigue from wander- 
ing so far away from a resting-place. 

Mr. Gould remarks, that the noddy, unlike the 
generality of Terns, builds in bushes or on low trees, 
making a large nest of twigs and dried grass ; and 
while hovering round it, the old birds utter a low 
querulous murmur. The eggs are three in number, 
of a reddish yellow, blotched with dull red and 
purple. It does not plunge down upon its prey, 
like the other Terns, but as it skims along the water, 
during its rapid progress. 

The wings when closed extend beyond the tail, 
which is rounded, not forked. Plumage sooty black, 
forehead white, passing into grey and gradually 
blending with the general tint. Bill and feet 
black. 

2051. — The Scissabs-Bill 

•{Rynchops nigra). Sea Skimmer, Sheawater, 
Cut-water ; Piscator of the Chilians. 

This extraordinary bird, whose beak differs from 
Ihat of all its oceanic allies, is very extensively 
spread ; it ranges along the east and west coast of 
America; is not uncommon on the coasts of Mala- 
bar, and Coromandel, and on those of Senegal in 
Africa. Catesby describes it as frequent near the 
sea-coasts of Carolina ; Lesson found it in thousands 
off the coasts of Concepcion (Chili) ; and Mr. 
Darwin observes that he saw it on the east and west 
coasts of South America between latitudes thirty and 
forty-five degrees ; and adds, that it is abundant far 
inland along the course of the Rio Paiana, where it 
is said to be stationary, breeding in the marshes. 

The scissars-bill is about twenty inches in length, 
the neck being elongated ; its stretch of wing, how- 
ever, is very great, giving a measurement of three 
feet six or eight inches; the mandibles of the bill 
are very compressed, and the lower, which is much 
the longest, bears no distant resemblance to a sharp 
and slender paper-cutter ; its length is about five 
inches ; the upper mandible is more than an inch 
shorter, more pointed, and rather stouter, having its 
inferior edge channelled with a groove for the re- 
ception of the lower blade, which shuts somewhat 
like a razor into its handle. Both mandibles are 
orange-red at the base, but gradually become black. 
Figs. 2052, 5053, and 20ij4 show the bill of this bird 
in different positions. 

The tail is forked. 

Everlastingly traversing the surface of the water, 
this extraordmary bird flies with the celerity of an 
arrow ; and with the tip of the lower mandible cleav- 
ing the liquid surface, it seizes and swallows its 
prey, namely, fishes and various Crustacea. In this 
manner flocks skim to and fro, busy in thus plough- 
ing the waves, each bird leaving its narrow wake as 
it dashes on in a wild irregular course, uttering loud 
harsh cries of exultation. Catesby says that the 
scissars-bill frequents the oyster banks on the coast 
of Carolina, for the purpose of feeding on those 
moUusks ; Linneeus states that besides fishes and 
Crustacea, shell-fish form part of its diet, and Lesson 
observes," we had proof that this bird knew how to 
use its beak with advantage and the greatest ad- 
dress. The sandy beaches of Penco are covered 
with mactrae (bivalve shells) which the ebbing tide 



leaves nearly dry in small shallows. The scissars- 
bill, well aware of this, places itself near these mol- 
hisks, waiting till the valves are a little opened, 
when it immediately thrusts in the lower trenchant 
blade of its bill between them ; they immediately 
close, and the bird then raises the shell and beats it 
a>;ainst the beach so as to cut the contractor muscle 
of the mollusk, which it then easily obtains and 
swallows. Many times have we been witnesses of 
this highly-perfected instinct." 

The scissars-bill breeds in small flocks in marshes, 
on sand-banks, and low islands ; the egi;s are three 
in number, of a clear white, spotted with different 
shades of ash. The general colour of this species 
is dark umber-brown, approaching black over the 
wings and upper surface ; forehead, cheeks, throat, 
chest, and under parts white : a slight bar of white 
across the wings ; feet red-lead colour. 

From this bird we pass to the Gulls. Attache's of 
the sea, from whose stol-es they derive their support, 
the Gulls on ample slowly-flapping pinions are sure 
to attract the notice of all who visit the coast, and 
the mouths of our larger rivers. Easy and buoyant 
is their flight, as they sail along in wide circles, in- 
tent upon the watere beneath. Let the gale blow, 
and the billows roll, there are they making head 
against the wind, and performing the most graceful 
evolutions. 

Though the gulls float on the water, they do not 
dive, but, pouncing down, skim their food from the 
surface, or pick it up on the muddy beach when the 
tide has retired. Fish, Crustacea, mollusks, and 
dead animal matters constitute their nourishment. 
They breed in companies, some along the shore, 
others on the banks of small islets, or reefs ; 
some in marshes, othera on bold rocks. They un- 
dergo a double moult, but that of the spring is only 
partial. Their plumage is deep, full, and soft. 

The group is spread throughout all latitudes. 

2055. — The Grkat Black-backed Gull 
{Larus marinus). Among the various species of 
Gull which haunt our shores, this fine species may 
be often noticed flying alone or in pairs, and known 
by its superior size, its black mantle, and wings. 
It is common in the Oreades and Hebrides ; and 
migrating south in winter, visits the coasts of Hol- 
land and France, both in spring and on the approach 
of the cold season. In very high latitudes it is rare ; 
and is seldom seen in Baffin's Bay, though it is by no 
means unfrequent along the coast of the States of 
North America. Its cry is loud and hoarse. Among 
its breeding places in the British Islands may be 
named the Steep-holme, and Sandy Islands in the 
Bristol Channel, Souliskerry in the Orkneys, the 
Bass Islands in the Frith of Forth, and the marshes 
at the mouth of the Thames. It builds a nest of 
rushes, grass, &c. ; the eggs are three or four in 
number, of an olive-green blotched with black. In 
its habits it is very wary, and its appetite is vora- 
cious. 

We may here observe that in the genus Larus the 
bill is strong, straight, and cultrated; the upper 
mandible is curved at the tip ; the lower mandible 
has a projecting angle, and thence slopes obliquely 
upwards to the point ; the nostrils are placed in the 
middle of the beak, and are oblong and narrow. 
Fore-toes webbed, hind-toe small. Fig. 2056 repre- 
sents the stomach of a species of Larus, laid open. ' 

2057. — The Black-headed, or Laughing Gull 
{Xema ridihundm). Larus ridibundus, Linn. 

The species of the genus Xema (Leach) are dis- 
tinguished by a more slender bill, a slighter contour, 
and by the head being black in summ'er, which co- 
lour is lost on the approach of winter, and resumed 
in the spring. The laughing gull is common during 
the winter on our coasts and those of temperate 
Europe; but leaves the sea on the approach of 
spring, and visits the lakes and fenny districts of ihe 
interior of the country, for the purpose of breeding. 
Here it makes a nest of decayed grass among the 
tufts of rushes, the female laying three or four eggs 
of a pale olive-brown, blotched with black and grey. 
The young are covered with parti-coloured down, but 
soon become fledged, and towards the end of June 
begin with their parents their course from the in- 
terior seawards. Formerly the eggs and young 
were held in estimation, and, according to Mr. Sel- 
by, a gullery has produced a revenue of from fifty 
to eighty pounds a-year to the proprietor. He no- 
tices the large pond at Pallinsburn in Northumber- 
land, and other localities in the neighbourhood, as 
annually visited by flocks of these birds ; and Wil- 
lughby states that in his time they yearly built and 
bred " at Norbury in Staffordshire, on an island in the 
middle of a great pool," arriving about the begin- 
ning of March, and incubating towards the end of 
April. The young were taken and fattened for the 
table, to the number of one thousand two hundred 
annually, and sold at a high price. 

The head of this species is a dark blackish brown, 
the bill deep crimson : the general plumage pearl 



grey above, white beneath ; wings long and pointed ; 
legs blood red. In winter the head is white. 
Earthworms, slugs, aquatic insects, constitute its 
summer diet, and it otten visits ploughed lands in 
quest of the larvie of the cockchatfer; in winter it 
feeds upon small fish and crustacea. 

2058. — The Arctic Skua Gull 

{Lestrig j>ayasiticus). Catarrhactes parasiticus, 
Fleming ; Larus parasiticus, Linn. 

Unlike the true gulls, the Skua or Parasitic Gulls 
are birds of rapacious habits, and are bold and de- 
structive, resembling in many points birds of prey. 
Fish is their usual food ; like the sea-eagle, now- 
ever, they seldom obtain their livelihood by their own 
honest exertions, but attacking the ordinary spe- 
cies, they force them to give up their booty, or to 
disgorge if, if swallowed, and sweeping down with 
arrow-like velocity catch it before it reaches the 
water. They have the beak strong and thick with 
an extended cere at the base, and hooked at the 
point ; the claws are large and sharp, the inner one 
the most robust and curved ; the wings are long and 
pointed; the tail rounded, with the two middle fea- 
thers prolonged and narrow. Their flight is astonish- 
ingly rapid, and performed in successive curves, so 
that it bears no resemblance to the flagging undu- 
lating and wheeling course of the gulls (Larus). 
Three species tenant the northern shores of our 
island and the higher latitudes : namely, the common 
skua, a large and fierce bird, which hesitates not to 
assault the eagle, should the latter venture within 
the limits of its breeding territory ; the Pomarine 
skua, and the Arctic skua. 

The Arctic skua is widely distributed over the 
high northern latitudes, and is to be met with in 
the polar seas both of Europe and North America: 
it breeds upon several of the Orkney and Shetland 
Islands, congregating in small flocks ; and the young 
in autumn repair to the northern coasts in England 
as well as those of the Scottish mainland, harassing 
the gulls that follow the shoals of herring, which at 
that season approach the shore ; the adults, how- 
ever, are rarely met with so far south, but after the 
breeding season migrate, as it would appear, east- 
ward, returning to the Orkneys in May. It is com- 
mon along the Baltic, and the coasts of Norway and 
Sweden, as well as on the lakes of the interior. The 
young accidentally visit Holland, Germany, France, 
and Switzerland. The flight of this species is very 
swilt, and its aerial evolutions while persecuting the 
more peaceful fishes of the sea are extremely beau- 
tiful ; but would interest the more, did we not 
know the injury it is inflicting on the unfortunate 
objects of its attack. Its nest is composed of dry 
grass ; the eggs are two in number, of a dark olive- 
green, blotched with liver-brown. The Arctic skua 
defends its nest with great determination, and cou- 
rageously darts at the intruder within its territory, 
striking at the head both with beak and wings; it 
also feigns lameness in the manner of the lapwing. 

In perfect plumage the forehead is whitish, the 
fop of the head blackish brown ; all the under parts 
pure white ; upper parts ashy brown, passing into 
blackish on the quills and tail, of which latter the 
two middle feathers exceed the rest by four or five 
inches. Bill bluish ; legs black. Length fifteen 
inches. 

Family PELECANm./E (PELICAKS, CORMO- 
BAiNTS, DARTERS, &c.). 

In the birds of this family, with the exception of 
the Tropic Birds, the cheeks, throat, and parts about 
the base of the bill are more or less denuded of 
feathers ; the skin of the throat is very dilatable ; 
the tongue is small, and the nostrils are mere slits, 
not easily distinguishable. The beak is long, but 
varies in form. All the toes are united by webs, 
the hind-toe having an oblique direction inwards, 
instead of being directed completely backwards. 
Notwithstanding this form of the foot, and this po- 
sition of the hind-toe, with an ample web connecting 
it to the innermost of the anterior toes, the birds 
perch with facility on trees, and in the gannets we 
find the claw of the middle toe serrated. Wings 
ample ; flight rapid and enduring. The air-cells of 
the body are amazingly extensive. 

2059. — The Common Tropic Bird 
{Phaeton cetherius). The genus Phaeton, by some 
regarded as belonging to the Laridae (Gulls), is cha- 
racterized by a strong, compressed, elongated, and 
pointed bill with dentilated edges; the nostrils are 
linear; the cheeks are feathered; the legs are very 
small and short ; the wings long and pomted ; the 
tail short ; with the exception of two long, slender, 
but wiry feathers. 

The navigator well knows these birds as har- 
bingers of the tropics, where, far from land, they 
may be seen soaring over the ocean, or giving chase 
to the flying-fishes, which rise in glittering shoals 
above the surface of the waves. Their flight is 
extremely graceful : they often glide along, without 



Pelicans.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



67 



any apparent motion of the wings, but sometimes 
dait onwards by a succession of rapid impulsive 
movements, cleavinE: the air with great velocity. 
On the appearance of a vessel, they generally make 
towards it, sail round and round it, and then shoot 
away, to give chase to their finny prey. 

It is seldom that these birds are seen many degrees 
beyond the tropics, though occasionally they are 
driven out of the limits of their ordinary range by 
storms. The tropic bird rarely, if ever, settles on 
the water ; but usually returns to its roosting-place 
in the evening, where it perches on trees or craggy 
rocks. In serene weather it is sometimes observed 
to settle on the backs of drowsy turtles, sunning 
themselves at the surface of the water. Though, as 
we have said, these birds usually visit their rocky 
resting-places in the evening, yet in latitudes remote 
from land they keep during the night, as well as the 
day, upon the wing. Lesson heard them often over- 
head in fine calm tropical nights, still pursuing, un- 
wearied, their rapid course. According to Catesby, 
they breed on the inaccessible cliffs of the Bermudas, 
and in great numbers on some little islands at the 
end of Porto Rico. They are abundant near the 
islands of Bourhon and Mauritius. The natives of 
some of the islands within the tropics use the two 
long tail-feathers as ornaments of dress. 

The general colour of the tropic bird is white, 
variegated with curved lines of black on the back : 
marks of black across some of the quill-feathers, 
and a circle of the same round the eye, ending in a 
point near the occiput ; bill fine red ; legs ver- 
milion. Total length, excluding the long, slender 
tail-feathers, about eighteen inches. The Red-tailed 
Tropic Bird (Phaeton phaenicurus) is a distinct spe- 
cies, and more common in the intertropics of the 
Great Pacific, while the present species frequents 
more abundantly those of the Atlantic Ocean. 

2060.— The Gannet 

(Sula Bussana). Fou de Bassan of the French ; 
Solend-Gans, or Schotten-Gans of the Germans ; 
Gans of the ancient British ; Solan and Soland 
Goose, English. 

In the genus Sula, the bill is long, thick at the 
base, and tapering to a sharp point ; the edges are 
denticulated with serrations directed backwards ; 
beneath the under mandible the skin is naked 
and dilatabie ; space round the eyes naked ; tail 
graduated ; claw of middle toe pectonated. 

Gifted with unwearied powers of wing, the gannet 
soars over the ocean, surveying its surface with a 
piercing glance, and darting down with more than 
arrow-like rapidity on the fish which has unwarily 
approached the surface. This extraordinary bird is 
distributed over the Arctic regions of the Old and 
New World; in Europe, the shores of Norway and 
the Hebrides are their strongholds; the Bass Rock 
at the entrance of the Frith of Forth, the Isle of 
Ailsa at the mouth of the Frith of Clyde, St. Kilda, 
the Skelig Isles on the Irish coast, and others, are 
their annual breeding resorts. They are numerous 
in Iceland, and are found on the coast of Newfound- 
land, and on the north-west coast of America. 

The gannet is migratory, arriving at the Bass 
and other places of resort about the end of March, 
in vast flocks, for the purpose of incubation. 
Thousands incubate in harmony together: the nest 
is composed of withered grasses and sun-dried sea- 
weeds, and, according to Mr. Selby, the female 
lays only a single egg, not two, as is stated by 
Temminck. When first hatched, the young are 
quite destitute of down, and the skin is of a dark 
lead colour ; in a few days, however, a white down 
makes its appearance, and soon becomes so thick 
and full, that the nestlings look like powder-puffs : 
in about two months the young are fledged. 

The Bass Rock and St. Kilda may be regarded as 
regular gannet farms ; the young are taken in great 
numbers, not only for the sake of the down, but 
also of their flesh, which, though oily and rank, is 
esteemed as a relish, when roasted, in many parts of 
Scotland ; and in the Edinburgh market, and the 
markets of various other towns, the birds are sold 
at the rate of one shilling and eiehtpence each, to 
the number of many thousands. The eggs also are 
highly prized, and it is said that twenty-two thousand 
birds, and an immense quantity of eggs, are annually 
consumed in St. Kilda alone. The young are cured 
and dried for winter consumption. The precipitous 
Bass Rock, according to Mr. Selby, is rented from 
the proprietor at sixty or seventy pounds a-year ; 
and the proceeds depend upon the produce of the 
gannets. " Great care is taken to protect the old 
birds, which the tenant is enabled to do from the 
privilege possessed by the proprietor of preventing 
any person from shooting or otherwise destroying 
them, within a certain limited distance of the island. 
From the accounts I have received from the resident 
there, it appears that the gannet is a very long-lived 
bird, as he has recognised, from particular and well- 
known marks, certain individuals for upwards of 
forty years that invariably returned to the same spot 
Vol 11. 



to breed ; he also confirmed to me the time required 
for this bird to attain maturity, viz., four years, and 
pointed out several in the different garbs they 
assume during that period, stating also, that until 
fully matured, they have never been known to 
breed." During incubation, in consequence of being 
unmolested, they become very tame ; and where 
the nests are easily accessible, upon the flat surface 
of the rock on the south-west side of the island, will 
allow themselves to be stroked by the hand without 
resistance, or any show even of impatience, except 
the low guttural cry of ffrorj, grog. Dr. Harvey 
says that the surface of Bass Island is almost entirely 
covered in the months of May and June with the 
nests, eggs, and young of the gannet, so that it is 
scarcely possible to walk without treading on them. 
The flocks rise in clouds, and make such a stunning 
noise that it is scarcely possible to hear your com- 
panion's voice. The sea all round is covered with 
them, and the flocks in the distance can only be 
compared to vast swarms of bees. The food of the 
gannet consists almost exclusively of the different 
species of herring, on which it plunges from a great 
altitude, with tremendous lurce and rapidity ; gan- 
nets have, indeed, been taken by means of a fish 
fastened to a board sunk to the depth of two fathoms, 
against which, so violent has been the shock of the 
bird, that its neck has been instantly dislocated, and 
the bill firmly fixed in the wood. Thus, plunging 
from aloft beneath the waves, does the birds pounce 
upon its finny prey, and again rise into the regions 
of air with surprising ease and address. Buchanan, 
in his 'View of the Fishery of Great Britain,' calcu- 
lated that the gannets of St. Kilda alone destroy 
annually one hundred and five millions of herrings : 
yet the shoals of this fish, though man draws his 
millions also, seem undiminished, notwithstanding 
the annual havoc made amongst them. On the 
approach of autumn, the great body of gannets seek 
more southern latitudes, and in winter are met with 
in great abundance in the Bay of Biscay and in the 
Mediterranean, where the anchovy and sardine 
afford them an ample supply. 

The general colour of the adult gannet is white ; 
the top of the head and back of the neck being 
tinged with yellow, and the quill-feathers black ; 
bill bluish grey ; naked skin around the eyes dull 
blue; skin of throat black; webs of the toes dusky ; 
a bluish streak along the tarsus and upper part of 
the toes. Length two feet eight or ten inches. 
The general plumage of the young of the year is 
dusky grey, which gradually passes into white. 

Fig. 2061 represents the Gizzard of the Gannet 
laid open in order to show the extensive solvent 
glands. 

2062. — The Booby, or Biiown Gannet 

{Svlu fused). Le Fou Brun of the French. 

This species, called " fou," or booby, from its 
apathy in allowing itself to be captured or knocked 
on the head, is a native of desolate islands and 
rocky shores in the warmer latitudes. Thousands 
breed at the island of Ascension, on the Bahamas, 
on the rocky islets of the coast of Cayenne, along 
the shores of New Spain and the Caracas, as well 
as of Brazil. It is found also in Rodriguez, the 
Alacrane Islands, &c. ; but there are several spe- 
cies between which voyagers do not discriminate. 
Mr. Gould describes one (S. Australis) from the 
TasmanianSeas: — " Like the other members of the 
family," he savs, " this species will allow of its 
being -taken witli the hand. Some of my specimens 
were so taken on a rock on the Actaeon Islands." 
Boobies often alight on vessels, and suffer them- 
selves to be captured ; and Dampier says that in the 
Alacrane Islands, on the coast of Yucatan, the 
crowds of these birds were so great that he could 
not pass their haunts without being incommoded 
by their pecking. They were ranged in pairs ; and 
though he succeeded in making some fly away by 
the blows he bestowed upon them, the greater 
number remained in despite of his efforts to make 
them take wing. 

Numerous voyasrers have described or alluded to 
the persecution which the booby experiences from 
the frigate bird, a fact which Lesson questions, but 
which seems to be very generally attested. Feuillfie, 
Leguat, Dampier, Catesby, and many more, narrate 
their observations respecting the encounter of the 
frigate bird with the booby ; and Nuttall says, " the 
boobies have a domestic enemy more steady though 
less sanguinary in his persecutions than man ; this is 
the frigate pelican or man-of-war bird, who, with a 
keen eye descrying his humble vassal at a distance, 
pursues him without intermission, and obliges him, 
by blows with his wings and bill, to surrender his 
finny prey, which the pirate instantly seizes and 
swallows. . . . The booby utters a loud cry, some- 
thing in sound betwixt that of the raven and the 
goose, and this wailing is heard more particularly 
when pursued by the frigate bird, or when the 
assemblage happens to be seized with any sudden 
panic." "Feuillee says, when the boobias " return in 



bands towards evening from their fishing, the frigate 
birds arc in waiting, and, dashing upon them, compel 
them to cry as if for succour, in doing which they 
disgorge some of the fish which tliey are carrying 
to their young ones, and thus do the frigate birds 
profit by the fishing of the boobies, which they then 
leave to pursue their route." 

In general manners the booby agrees with our 
gannet, except that the latter by no means merits 
the appellation of the former. Both walk awkwardly, 
and real almost erect, supported, like the cormorant, 
by the stiff' feathers of the tail. The brown booby 
is of a general dusky brown above ; whitish beneath, 
with black primaries ; the naked skin about the face 
is reddish ; orbits yellow ; legs straw colour. 

In closing our account of the gannets we refer to 
Fig. 2063, representing St. Kilda, where, as stated, 
the solan-goose breeds in thousands, and where 
quantities of the eggs and young ire taken. They 
are procured at the hazard of the lives of the daring 
fowler, who have to clamber on the rocks at a 
prodigious height above a raging sea, or to be 
lowered by means of a rope over horrid precipices 
and hanging in mid air, to take their booty from the 
shelves and ledges which the birds occupy, regard- 
less of the roar and din of the voices and wings of 
myriads of excited birds, mingling with the noise 
of the rushing waters. 

2064, 2065, 20G6, 2067.— The White Pelican 

(Pelecanus onocrotalus). In the genus Pelecanug 
the bill is very long, broad, flattened, and straight, 
with a hooked projection at the extremity of the 
upper mandible: the nostrils are basal slits; the 
under mandible is formed of two long, slender 
flexible branches uniting together at the tip, and 
enclosing a widely dilatable membranous pouch, 
which extends to the throat ; tongue rudimentary ; 
eyes surrounded by a naked space ; body large ; legs 
sliort ; wings moderately ample ; air-cells of the 
body extensively developed. Fig. 2068 {represents 
the Head, Fig. 2069 the Foot, of the Pelican. 

This magnificent bird is a native of Africa and 
India, ami the southern provinces of Eastern 
Europe. It is common on the Danube and Volga, 
on the lakes of Hungary and Russia, on the Black 
Sea and along the coasts of Greece, and also in 
Egypt and the Cape of Good Hope. 

Hasselquist, who saw this species at Damietta, 
observes that it visits Egypt in the middle of Sep- 
tember, arriving in flocks, which form during flight 
an acute triangle at a great elevation. Dr. von 
Siebold saw it at Japan. The pelican swims well, 
but, strictly speaking, does not dive. We have often 
seen these birds plunge their long beaks and necks 
under water, and net the fish in their capacious 
pouches: in their wild state they hover and wheel 
over the surface of the water, watching the shoals of 
fish beneath, and suddenly sweeping down, bury 
themselves in the foaming waves, rising immediately 
from the water by their own buoyancy, up they soar, 
the pouch laden with the fish scooped up during 
their momentary submersion. The number of fish 
the pouch of this species will contain may be easily 
imagined when we state that it is so dilatable as to 
be capable of containing two gallons of water ; yet 
the bird has the power of contracting this membra- 
nous expansion, by wrinkling it up under the lower 
mandible, until it is scarcely to be seen. In shallow 
inlets, which the pelican often frequents, it nets its 
prey with great adroitness in the manner already 
described, and which may be witnessed by observers 
of these birds in the Zoological Gardens. 

The pelican chooses remote and solitary islands, 
isolated rocks in the sea, the borders of lakes and 
rivers, as its breeding-place. The nest, placed on 
the ground, is made of coarse grasses, and the eggs, 
which are white, are two or three in number. While 
the female is incubating, the male brings fish to her 
in his pouch, and the young, when hatched, are 
assiduously attended by the parents, who feed them 
by pressing the pouch against the breast, so as to 
transfer the fish from the former into the throats of 
the young. This action has doubtless given origin 
to the old fable of the pelican feeding its young 
with blood drawn from its own breast. Occasionally 
the pelican perches on trees along the margin of 
the water, but rocky shores are its favourite haunts. 
In certain localities they congregate in great num- 
bers, mixed with other water-fowl, all harmoniously 
breeding together. Le Vaillant, upon visiting 
Dassen Eyland, at the entrance of Saldanha Bay, 
after wading through the surf and clambering up 
the rocks, beheld an astonishing spectacle : — " All 
of a sudden there arose from the whole surface of 
the island an impenetrable cloud, which formed at 
the distance of forty feet above our heads an im- 
mense canopy, or rather sky, composed of birds of 
every species and of all colours ; cormorants, sea- 
gulls, sea-swallows, pelicans, and I believe the 
whole winged race of this part of .Africa, assembled 
on this spot. All their voices mixed together, and 
modified according to their different kinds, formed 

K2 





ta<».-Felkwi. 



X07I.— £kuU tad BmJ of Comioniit. 







2070.— CormoranL 



SLiOti.— Pelicans. 





2057.— Pelican and Young. 



£074.— Crested Cormorant. 



68 




2076. — American Darter ■ Male- 








^rwrn-'^^ 




S075.-la VailUnff Darter. " 



2077, — American Darter ; Female. 




207!).— QuadrupeJs, BInlf, &c., from Egyptian Antiquities. 



2078.— Frigate, or Man-of-War Bird. 



69 



70 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Cormorants. 



•uch a horrid music that I was every moment obliged 
to cover my head to gain a little relief to my ears. 
The alarm which we spread was so much the more 
general amone these innumerable legions of birds, 
as we principally disturbed the females, which were 
then sittinu ; they had nests, eggs, and young to 
defend. They were like furious harpies let loose 
against us, and their cries rendered us almost deaf. 
They often flew so near us that they flapped tlieir 
wings in our faces, and, though we tired our pieces 
repeatedly, we were not able to frighten them ; it 
seemed almost impossible to disperse this cloud. 
We could not move one step without crushing either 
their eggs or young, the earth was entirely strewed 
with them." The same enthusiastic traveller also 
narrates, that, on the Klein-brak river, whilst waiting j 
for the ebb-tide, he saw assembled thousands of 
pelicans and flamingoes, the whcormorant, and require no separate detailed account. 
The crest of this species, which consists of an oc- 
cipital tutY of long green feathers, is lost after the 
breeding season. (Fig. 2074.) The upper part of 



the back and shoulders of a deep bronzed green, 
each feather being margined with velvet black ; 
head, neck, and under suri'ace lustrous silky blackish 
green ; tail oi twelve black feathers ; bill and legs 
black ; guttural skin, and corners of the mouth 
gamboge-yellow, the former with black specks; iris 
green. Length two feet one or two inches. 

The foreign species of the genus Phalacrocorax are 
very numerous, and generally distributed through- 
out the ditt'erent quarters of the globe; Europe, 
Asia, Africa, America, and Australia having their 
respective examples. 

2075. — Le Vaillant's Darter, or Snake-Bird 
(Plotus Levailhntii). The darters, or anhingas, as 
Button and the French naturalists term them, are 
most extraordinary birds, remarkable for the length 
and slenderness of the neck, which bears no distant 
resemblance to the slim form of a snake, attached 
to the body of a cormorant ; the beak is long, 
straight, pointed, and obliquely dentilated along the 
edges: the face and throat are naked, the wings 
rather short : the tail ample and composed of rigid 
feathers. The darters perch upon trees along the 
margin of rivers, lakes, and creeks : they swim with 
the body completely submerged, the long neck 
alone rising out of the water. When thus seen, 
they might be mistaken at a casual glance for 
snakes, and Le Vaillant says that when the birds are 
perching the neck, 'is in a slate of constant oscilla- 
tion, and that any one who saw its tortuous move- 
ments amidst the foliage of the trees, the body being 
concealed, would take it for one of the tree-ser- 
pents. 

During flight the neck is stretched out in a line 
with the body. The species are limited ; one is 
found in the Old World, — one in the New. 

Le Vaillant's darter is a native of Senegal, the 
Cape of Good Hope, some parts of India, and of 
the Islands of Java and Sumatra. It feeds on fish, 
which it pursues, like the cormorant, under water, 
using its tail as a rudder in its subaquatic evolu- 
tions. 

Small fish are swallowed whole, but larger prey 
is carried to the trunk of a tree or rock, where the 
bird, fixing it securely beneath its feet, picks it to 
pieces. Though the water is the favourite element 
of the darter, according to Le Vaillant, it is upon 
trees and rocks that it establishes its nest and rears its 
young ; always choosing situations favourable to the 
escape of the brood, when fledged, or when alarmed, 
into the water. This species is extremely shy and 
wary, and difficult of approach ; so instantaneous 
are its actions in the water, that it dives before the 
shot reaches it, upon the drawing of the trigger, and 
often doubles back, emerging far behind the sports- 
man, and, taking wing, sails away to a distance. In 
full plumage all the upper part of the head and 
back of the neck are brick red, bordered with a 
riband of black which descends to the shoulders ; 
forehead, cheeks and sides of neck white ; throat 
and anterior part of neck, ochre-yellow ; chest and 
under parts black, with green reflexions ; base of the 
neck, reddish, with spots of white ; upper surface 
brown, the middle of each feather of a bright rust 
colour; quills and tail brown; beak and feet 
yellow. 

2076, 2077.— The American Darter 

(Plulus Anhinya). The American Darter, or Snake- 
bird, is a native of the Carolinas, Georgia, the Flo- 
ridas, and Louisiana; it is common in Brazil and 
Cayenne. Like the African species it swims with 
the body submerged, and its long neck vibrating in - 
a pecular manner. "The first individual," says Mr. % 
Ord, " that I saw in Florida was sneaking away to " 
avoid me along the shore of a reedy mai-sh, which 
was lined with alligators ; and the first impression on 
my mind was that I beheld a snake, but the recol- 
lection of the habits of the bird soon undeceived 
me. To pursue these birds at such times is useless, 
as they cannot be induced to rise or even expose 
their bodies." " Wherever," adds the same natu- 
ralist, " the limbs of a tree project over and dip into 
the waters, there the darters are sure to be found, 
these situations being convenient resting-places for 
the purpose of sunning and preening themselves, and 
probably giving them a better opportunity of ob- | 
serving their finny prey. They crawl from the water 
upon the limbs, and fix themselves in an upright 
position, which they maintain in the utmost silence. 
If there be foliage or long moss, they secrete them- 
selves in it in such a manner that they cannot be 
perceived unless one be close to them. When ap- 
proached, they drop into the water with such sur- 
prising skill that one is astonished how so large a 
body can plunge with so little noise, the agitation 
of tire water being apparently not greater than that 
occasioned by the gliding of an eel." 

Bartram, who states that he has seen paintings of 
the darter on Chinese screens, and other Indian 
pictures, was not, we suppose, aware of the distinc- 
tion between the American and Old World species 



Darters.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



71 



which, till Temminck extricated them from a laby- 
rinth of error, were confounded together under the 
title of Plotus nielanogaster. According tu Bavtram 
these birds "delight to sit in little peaceable com- 
munities on the dry limbs of trees, hanging over 
the still waters, with their wings and tails expanded, 
to cool and air themselves, when at the same time 
they behold their images in the watery mirror. At 
such times, when approached, they drop off the 
limbs into the water as if dead, and for a minute or 
two are not to be seen, when on a sudden, at a great 
distance, their long slender head and neck appear, 
like a snake rising erect out of the water. In the 
heat of the day they are seen in great numbers 
sailing very high in the air over lakes and rivers." 
These birds build in the trees of swamps and islands 
in the midst of lakes or sheets of water, and occupy 
the same station lor a series of years ; the nest is 
large, and made of sticks, and the eggs are blue. 

The plumage undergoes several changes before 
the perfect livery is attained. In full plumage the 
general colour is glossy greenish black : the scapular 
feathers are long and slender, ornamented with a 
streak of white down the centre of each, forming 
a sort of plume over the back and wings ; side of 
the neck from the eye backwards marked throughout 
half its length with a stripe of brownish white, con- 
sisting of long hair-like feathers ; a few tuffs on the 
crown ; wings black, beautifully variegated with 
silvery white ; bill black above, yellow below ; naked 
skin of face and throat yellow : legs yellow ; middle 
claw pectinated ; plumage stiff and elastic. In the 
female and young the front of the neck is of a rusty 
grey colour, which extends over the breast. Length 
about two feet eight or ten inches, but the body 
does not much exceed in size that of a large duck. 
Fig. 2076 represents the Male, Fig. 2077 the Female. 

2078. — The Frigate, or Man-of-War Bird 

{Tachypetes Aquihis). The genus Tachypetes is 
characterized by a strong elongated beak, depressed 
in the centre, and abruptly hooked at the end ; the 
nostrils are mere slits in a suture running along each 
side of the upper mandible ; the tarsi are extremely 
short ; the webs of the toes deeply notched ; the 
wings extremely long and narrow ; the tail is 
forked ; an extensive naked gular pouch : one spe- 
cies only is ascertained. 

Noted for its raptorial habits, the frigate bird 
soars on rapid pinions over the broad expanse of 
ocean principally in intertropical latitudes, and 
tyrannizes over the gulls and boobies, from whom it 
forces the prey they have captured. At immeasur- 
able distances from shore it pursues its habits of 
rapine, but is never known to repose on the water ; 
rapid as an arrow it plunges from its altitude upon 
the shoals of ilying-fish, which rise glittering above 
the surface, or upon some unfortunate sea-bird which 
has made a capture, and which it harasses till it 
obtains the booty. No bird is more at home in air, 
or sweeps along on more rapid pinions. Supported, 
says Mr. Vigors, " in its unlimited flights by the 
strength and expansion of its wings, and aided by 
the singular mechanism of its tail, and the buoyant 
nature of the inflated sac which distends its throat, 
it seems to be an inhabitant of the air rather than of 
the land, to which it resorts alone for the duties of 
its nest, or of the water, over which it only hovers 
for its prey." It may here be added that the long 
wing-bones are hollow, thin, and light, and that the 
air-cells of the whole body are extremely developed, 
while, in proportion to the expanse of winsrs, the 
total weight of the bird is very trifling ; hence can 
it repose in the upper regions of air, suspended 
without effort. 

Sloane, who saw these and tropic birds when he 
came into latitute 13" Vy, says, "The man-of-war 
bird seems very large, bigger than a kite, and black ; 
they fly like kites, very high, and often appear im- 
moveable over the water, to wait for and catch small 
fish appearing on the surface : they are sharp winged, 
and their tail is forked. When flying-fishes are 
persecuted under water by dolphins, bonitos, &c., 
they rise and fly for some space in the air, and are 
often devoured by these birds in that time. We 
saw them first when we came near Barbadoes. The 



sailors guess themselves not many days, or about 
two hundred leagues, off the islands when they spy 
them first ; and it is wondered how they can direct 
their course to the land at nights, being so far 
distant ; but it seems no very strange matter, because 
they are very high in the air, and can see land much 
farther than those on the deck or topmast of a ship. 
The reason of their flying so high may be to have a 
greater field before them for prey, because they may 
go where they see the dolphins follow or hunt tlie 
flying-fishes. They are commonly thought in the 
West Indies to foretel the coming in of ships, for 
when they see a man-of-war bird come into their 
ports, they reckon ships will soon follow ; and it is 
very often true, for they love to fish in not very 
rough weather, so that when it blows hard at sea, 
they come into the ports and bays to fish, where 
the wind is broken off by the land, and the same 
wind blowing them in brings in the shipping 
after them. There are more of these in the firm 
land of America than in the isles. One of these 
birds at Panama coming to lake sardinas that were 
a-curing in the sun, a negro broke his wing with a 
stick he had in his hand : the body, after it was clear 
of its feathers, was little bigger than a pigeon. Tlie 
wings being extended, no man, though several tried, 
could reach, with his arms stretched out, within four 
inches of the tip of them." The fat was considered 
by the Indians and others a sovereign remedy in 
some diseases, such as sciatica, &c. 

These birds are said to build their nest on preci- 
pitous rocks near the sea. The eggs are stated to 
be of a carnation tinge dotted with crimson, and 
one or two in number. The length of the male, in- 
cluding the tail, is three i'eet ; expanse of wing 
eight feet ; gular air-pouch red ; general plumage 
blackish umber-brown. In the female the pouch is 
less and the plumage of a duller hue. 

2079.— Quadrupeds, Birds, &c., in Outlise, from 

Egyptian Antiquities. 
At the conclusion of our sketch of the Birds contained 
in our Pictorial Museum, we take the opportunity of 
referring to these sculptured forms, which are inter- 
esting to the naturalist as enabling him to compare 
the present animal productions of Egypt with those 
of ages past, and which prove that the revolutions 
of time, the changes of empires, and the alterations 
of the land, have but slightly aft'ected the produc- 
tions of the land of the Pharaohs. 

Among the quadrupeds we recognise a large 
baboon, the Egyptian hare, the lion, the sheep, the 
dog (greyhound), the lioness, the bull, and ap- 
parently a niouflon. Of birds we have a species of 
lapwing, goose, vulture, ibis, hawk, owl, swallow, 
the demoiselle or Numidian crane, the stork flying, 
the duck, and the Percnopterus, or Pharaoh chicken. 
Page 72 contains a few additions to the birds of our 
Museum, some of which will require our particular 
notice. 

2080.— The Whip-poor-Will 

{Caprimiilgu.1 vocifervs, Linn.). Antrostomus vo- 
ciferus, Gould. 

This species of night-jar, so well known in North 
America for the peculiarity of its cry, is described 
in vol. i. p. 287. 

2081.— Chuck-Will's Widow 

{Capriinulgus CaroUnensis) . Antrostomus Caroli- 
nensis, Gould. 

This night-jar is also described in vol. i. p. 287. 

2082. — The Song-Thrush and Fieldfare 
(Tardus musicus and 2'. pilaris). For the descrip- 
tion of these well-known birds refer to vol. i. pp. 322, 
323. In our illustration, a represents the Song- 
Thrush ; b, the Fieldfare. 

2083. — The Glossy-headed Shortfoot 

Micropus clialcocephalus, Swainson). Ixos chal- 
cocephalus, Temm. 

This species forms one of the family of the Meru- 
lidaB (vol. i. p. 322), and is a native of .Java, inha- 
biting the woody district of Bantam, but of its habits 
we have no details. In the male the whole of the 
head is metallic black with violet reflexions ; the 



upper parts of the body are of a leaden grey ; quill* 
black : tail grey ; with a band of black and a white 
termination ; breast deep (rrey, becoming brighter 
on the under parts. The female is more obscurely 
coloured. Length six inches and a half. 

2084.— Bunting 
(Emberiza), Head of. In this head the peculiar 
character of the beak of the genus is well displayed, 
and the tubercle on the palate of the upper man- 
; dible is very conspicuous. (See Common Bunting, 
vol. i. p. 331.) 

2085.— The Ykllow-Hammeb, or Yellow 

I Bunting 

(Emberiza cilrinella). Male. This elegantly- 

I coloured but well-known British bird, so con- 
spicuous in our hedgerows and copses, is described 

■ in vol. i. p. 331. 

2086. — The Wahty-faced Honet-bateb 

(Zanthomyza Phrygia. Gould). This beautiful 
bird, termed the Mock Regent Bird by the colo- 
nists of New South Wales, is one of the most lively- 
coloured of the Honey-Eaters. (See Meliphagidae, 
vol. i. p. 379.) Its plumage is rich yellow and 
deep black, most agreeably varied. According to 
Mr. Gould, " it is a stationary species, and enjoys a 
range extending from South Australia to New South 
Wales." " Although it is very generally distributed. 
its presence appears to be dependent on the state of 
the eucalypti, upon whose blossoms it mainly de- 
pends for subsistence ; it is consequently only to be 
found in any particular locality during the season 
that those trees are in full bloom. It generally 
resorts to the loftiest and most fully-flowered tree, 
where it reigns supreme, buffeting and driving every 
other bird away from its immediate neighbourhood ; 
it is, in fact, the most pugnacious bird I ever saw, 
evincing particular hostiUfy to the smaller Meli- 
phagidae, and even to others of its own species that 
may venture to approach the trees upon which two 
or three have taken their station." " I met with it 
in great abundance among the bushes ot New 
South Wales, and also found it breeding in the low 
apple-tree flats of the Upper Hunter. I have occa- 
sionally seen flocks of from fifty to one hundred in 
number, passing from tree to tree, as if engaged in 
a partial migration from one part of the country 
to another, probably in search of a mOre abundant 
supply of food. Its note is a peculiar loud whistle, 
not entirely devoid of melody. The nest, which is 
usually constructed on the overhanging branch of a 
eucalyptus, is round, cup-shaped, about five inches 
in diameter, composed of fine grasses, lined with a 
little wool and hair. The eggs are two in number, 
of a deep yellowish buff, marked all over with indis- 
tinct spots and irregular blotches of chestnut red, 
and dull purplish grey, particularly at the larger 
end, where they frequently form a zone." (Gould, 
' Birds of Australia.') 
In size this species equals the common thrush. 

2087 (u).— The Kori Bustard 

(Otis Kori). This noble species of bustard, from 
the interior of South Africa, is described in the 
present volume, at page 15. 

2087 (i).— The Houbara 
(Olis Honbara). This elegant bustard is a native 
of Barbary, Arabia, Persia, and occasionally occurs 
in south-eastern Europe. It is taken in Persia by 
means of trained hawks, as noticed in vol. i. p. 27. 

The wide desert plains are the abode of this 
species, which in habits and manners resembles the 
rest of its family. 

The sides of the neck and chest in the adult male 
are graced by a range of long plumes, the foremost 
and upper portion of which is white ; the remainder 
black. The front of the neck is white minutely 
mottled with grey. The head is surmounted by a 
beautiful crest of white plumes. The upper surface 
is tawny yellow, with zigzag bars of black ; under 
parts white. The young male wants both the crest 
and ruffles down each side of the neck ; and it is 
probable that after the breeding season the adult 
male loses these ornamental appendages. 



END OF THE CLASS AVES, OR BIRDS. 



\KnA, 




tMl^Cbuck-WiUWidaw. 




10«« — Head of Bunting. 




20M.— Yellow DunUng. 




t08(<— Wuty-luad Boney-nten and Not. 




2087.— Kori Bustud, and Houbara. 





208!.— Fieldbre and Song Thniah. 



72 



2080.— Wbip-poor-Will. 



2083.— Qlossjr-head<!d Shortfoot. 




2033,->-Stemain of River Tortoise, 




2044.— Sternain of Loggerliead Tmtle. 




2'j89.— Skeleton of Lajgethead Tutte. 




2090.— Canpaee of Rivet Tortol«e. 





2091.— Carapace of Bordered TottoiMt 




2092. — Carapace of Loggeriiead Turtle. 




2083.— Skeleton of Marsh Tortoise. 




209&.— Stfiinum of Marsh Tortoise. 




2094.— Cbluyphoriu. j 



2097.— Grecian Lyre. — From Mersenne. 



No. 60. Vol. II. 



[THE MUSEUM OP ANIJIATED NATURE.] 



73 



74 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Tortoises. 



CLASS REPTILIA (REPTILES). 



We now advance to another department of our 
Pictorial Museum, and enter upon our collection of 
Reptiles— a sincular class of beines, ])resenting the 
most wonderful variety of form and structure, and 
consequently adapted for different habits of life, 
different localities, and ditferent modes of loco- 
motion. We may take by way of examples the 
Tortoise, the Lizard, the Snake, and the Frog : the 
contrast is startlini;, and we are ready to >ay— Can 
these forms be comprehended together under one 
natural (treat group or class, or are they not examples 
of distinct classes? We may observe, that many 
naturalists, and among them Mr. Bell, Mr. Gray, 
and othere. regard the Frogs, Newts. Protei, &c., as 
a distinct class, under the iitle Amphibia ; while, on 
the other hand, Brongniart, Cuvier, Oppel, and 
others, place the Amphibia as an order or section 
(vithin the pale of the Reptilia. Moreover, between 
the long, twining snakes, and the solid heavy, shiekl- 
"Covered tortoises, the distance is very great ; much 
greater than between any forms of the two previous 
classes, viz., Mammalia and Birds; much greater 
than between the elephant and mouse, the eagle 
and humming-bird; almost, indeed, as much as 
between the bird and quadruped, excepting that the 
oviparous mode of reproduction obtains both in the 
tortoise and snake, which, be it observed, is also 
the case with birds — a pomt in which they exhibit 
a certain degree of approximation to the Reptilia. 

Without entering into an analysis of the various 
modes of arrangement which different naturalists 
have instituted, all of which have their objections, 
let us proceed to a general review of the common 
characteristics of these animals, dividing them into 
Tortoises (Chelonia), Lizards (Sauria), Serpents 
(Ophidia), and Frogs (Amphibia). All are verte- 
brate, with cold red blood, of a variable temperature ; 
<)reathing by means of lungs, sometimes by bran- 
chial tufts or gills : the skin is covered neither with 
hair nor feathers, but with solid shields, horny 
plates, scales, spines, or granules : otherwise, as in 
the Amphibia, it is naked. The heart consists 
essentially of two auricles and a ventricle. There 
is either no external organ of hearing, or merely an 
orifice, open in some, in othere covered with a 
tympanic membrane, in a few protected by a move- 
able valve. The limbs are variable ; four, two, or 
none. The appetite is in general carnivorous ; some- 
times, however, frugivorous. Of some the bite is 
deadly. A high temperature is most congenial 1o 
their nature, and it is in the hotter regions of the 
globe that they abound in the greatest numbers, 
both specifically and individually, and display the 
most varied forms, the most gigantic bulk, and the 
most dazzling colours. As our preliminary observ- 
ations must be very brief, we shall at once pass to 
our first order (perhaps subclass), hoping that as 
we advance we shall gradually develop the cha- 
racters of each in rotation. 



ORDER CHELONIA (TORTOISES) 

(xi'^'" 3. tortoise). These strange animals, as is 
well known, are covered with natural armour, which 
may be considered essentially a portion of the 
osseous framework, thrown, as it were, outside of 
the body, so as to constitute an external bony en- 
velope or box, enclosing and protecting the internal 
muscles and viscera, and covered on the outer surface 
by plates of horny matter, scales, or a leathery ex- 
pailsion. 

The box thus formed is composed of two portions : 
an upper portion, called the buckler, back-plate, or 
carapace (clypeus), composed of the vertebrae of 
the back and loins, and also of the ribs, all ex- 
panded and consolidated together ; a lower portion, 
called the plastron, or breastplate (sternum), con- 
sisting of nine osseous portions, eight in pairs, the 
ninth single, and occupying the anterior part of the 
plastron. The distinct bones forming the plastron 
vary much, in different groups, in their consolida- 
tion and degree of development ; it is in the land 
tortoises that the solidity of this portion is at its 
maximum. The same remark holds good with 
respect to the carapace, which presents different 
degrees of form, expansion, convexity, and of ex- 
ternal covering in the several subordinate groups 
and genera. 

The upper and under shields are in general 
united at the sides, leaving before and behind a 
space for the protrusion of the head, limbs, and tail ; 
and these in general can be more or less completely 
retracted under cover, and sometimes completely 
shut up, either by the carapace or plastron being 
transversely hinged. The union of the carapace 
and plastron at the sides, is by means of what are 



termed costo-stemal bones, analogous perhaps to 
the sternal ribs of the Sauria. 

Where the carapace is covered with plates or 
scales, they are divided into vertebral, costal, and 
marginal : the vertebral plates mnning longitudinally 
down the centre, and five in number: the costal 
plates are usually four, sometimes five, on each side ; 
these are surrounded by the marginal plates con- 
sisting of a nuchal plate, of a caudal plate, some- 
times single, sometimes double, and of a variable 
intermediate number. The plates of the plastron 
and of the bones of union are variable. In the 
marsh-tortoise those of the former are six on each 
side, those of the latter two. In the loggerhead- 
turtle they are more numerous and differently ar- 
ranged. We shall give a better idea of the structure 
of the carapace and plastron of these animals, and 
of their connection with the skeleton, by referring to 
our figures, than by any explanation. Fig. 2088 
represents the Skeleton and Curapace of the Com- 
mon Marsh Tortoise (Cistudo Europeea), seen from 
below. 

Fig. 2089 represents the Skeleton and imperfect 
Carapace of the Loggerhead Turtle (Chelone Caou- 
ana), seen from below. 

Fig. 2090, the Carapace of the River Tortoise 
(Trionyx, Geoffr. ; Gymnopus, Bibron), as seen from 
below. In this group the osseous part of the cara- 
pace is very much reduced, and flat, with an ex- 
tensive cartilaginous circumference, the upper 
surface being covered with a coriaceous membrane. 

Fig. 2091 is the Carapace of the common Bordered 
Tortoise (Testudo marginaia), covered with its 
horny shell. 

Fig. 2092 is the Carapace of the Loggerhead 
Turtle (upper surface), covered with its horny plates 
disposed in imbrications. 

Fig. 2093 represents the imperfectly developed 
Sternum of the River Tortoise (Trionyx). 

Fig. 2094 is the still more imperfect Sternum of 
the Loggerhead Turtle. 

Fig. 2095 is the complete Sternum of the Marsh 
Tortoise (Cistudo Europasa). The contrast between 
this and the two preceding is remaikable, yet in 
each the essential components are the same. 

It may appear at first sight that there is a great 
affinity between the armour, or rather box, in which 
the tortoise is enclosed, and the coat of mail with 
which many quadrupeds are covered, as for instance 
the Armadilloes and the Chlarayphorus (See Chla- 
myphorus, Fig. 2096). There is this important diffe- 
rence ; — the coat of mail in these quadrupeds (Mam- 
malia) is a simple horny addition to the skin itself, 
resting upon and supported indeed by bold pro- 
cesses of the skeleton ; whereas the osseous carapace 
and plastron of the tortoise, however developed, are 
part and parcel of the skeleton itself, which, as we 
have said, is so modified as to protect the internal 
organs, enclosing them as in a casket, which is itself 
covered either with horny plates variously arranged, 
or with a tough leathery skin, often thickened and 
carried out beyond the circumference of the osseous 
portions. Of the carapace of the tortoise Mercury 
is fabled to have formed the ancient Grecian lyre, of 
which one wilh only three strings, as given by 
Mersenne, is represented at Fig. 2097. 

The lungs of the tortoise are very extensive, and 
lie under the vaulted carapace, but it must be 
evident that they cannot, from the immobility of the 
carapace and sternum, be filled with air by any 
action resembling that of quadrupeds or birds in 
breathing, and in which the chest is alternately ex- 
panded and contracted. The tortoise swallows or 
gulps down air; the jaws being firmly closed, the 
cavity of the mouth is enlarged by the drawing 
down of the root of the tongue, and into the 
vacuum thus formed the air rushes in through the 
nostrils. The free part of the tongue is now applied 
to the posterior orifices of the nostrils so as to stop 
them, the gullet is also closed, the root of the 
tongue is elevated, the broad muscles of the throat 
contract, and the air is forced down the windpipe 
into the lungs, which become filled by a repetition 
of the process. The air is returned by the simple 
pressure of muscles within the plastron and carapace. 
It is in this manner that reptiles without ribs, as the 
frog and toad, perform the act of breathing. 

The jaws of tortoises are not armed with teeth, 
but cased in sharp-edged or serrated horny coverings, 
enabling them to crop and mince the vegetable ali- 
ment on which they feed. In some species of car- 
nivorous appetite, as the Trionyx, there are thick 
fleshy lips aiound this beak, and in one species, the 
Matamata, the horny sheath is so rudimentary, that 
many naturalists have overlooked it. 

The tongue of the tortoise is thick, fleshy, and 
very movable, though not capable of protrusion ; it 



is abundantly supplied with nerves, and covered 
with nervous papillee. It is provided with salivary 
glands, and doubtless enjoys to a high degree the 
sense of taste. 

With respect to smel), from the simplicity of the 
olfactory organs, it appears to be but imperfect, 
though sufficient for the necessities of the animal. 

Though the organs of hearing are not apparent 
externally, they exist internally, and in a tolerably 
perfect condition, yet tortoises appear by no means 
to have the sense of hearing acute ; indeed the gi- 
gantic tortoises on the Galapagos Islands are believed 
by the inhabitants to be perfectly deaf, and Mr. 
Darn in states that they certainly do not overhear a 
person walking close behind them. 

Tortoises have the eye well developed and large ; 
as in birds, it has an osseous ring, or circle of osseous 
plates, around the ball, and is defended by a mem- 
brana nictitans and two external eyelids; there are 
also lachrymal glands. The pupil is circular. 

In the terrestrial tortoises the skull is broad across 
the occiput, obtuse anteriorly, strong, and solid ; the 
orbits are nearly circular, and the depression for the 
reception of the vast temporal muscle is both deep 
and extensive ; the occipital ridge is elevated ; the 
cavity for the brain is contracted ; the articulating 
condyle is a prominent tubercule ; the horny covering 
of the upper jaw is strongly serrated, there being an 
inner as well as an outer ridge, and the inner ridge 
is received into a serrated channel of the horny 
ridge of the lower jaw, the outer ridge, which is deep, 
passing anteriorly, when the jaw is shut. This struc- 
ture, reminding us of an array of real teeth, renders 
the crushing and chopping up of vegetable aliment 
easily effected. Figs. 2098, 2099, 2100, and 2101 
represent the Skull of the Indian Tortoise, in pro- 
file, as seen from above, as seen from below, and 
as seen from behind. 

In the marine tortoises, or turtles, the cerebral 
cavity may be said to have a double roof; for by a 
production of the bones of the upper part of the « 
head, a double vault is produced, within which, and 
above the true surface of the cranium, are lodged the 
temporal muscles of enormous volume, and to which 
this vaulted roof forms an osseous envelope. This 
structure gives to the skull an appearance of being 
larger than it is in reality, for the cerebral cavity is 
very small. In the Matamata (Chelys fimbriata) the 
same peculiarity prevails ; the skull of this tortoise, 
a fierce aquatic species, inhabiting the lakes, moras- 
ses, and rivers of South America, is very remarkable. 
It is extraordinarily large and flat, appearing as if it 
had been crushed ; the small orbits are seated close 
to the end of the muzzle ; the posterior region of the 
cranium is elevated, in consequence of the vaulted 
arrangement of the bones described. The cerebral 
cavity is very trifling. Figs. 2102, 2103, 2104, and 
2105, show the Skull of the Matamata in different 
positions, viz. as seen from above, as seen from 
below, in profile, and in a back view. In the back 
view the vaulted structure is very distinguishable, 
but the covering is here narrow, leaving anteriorly 
two extensive, but not deep, uncovered fossae, as seen 
at Fig. 2102, over the back of which the bone 
stretches like a bridge. The articulating single 
condyle is very prominent, and just above it (Fig. 
210.^) is the cerebral cavity. 

The limbs of tortoises differ remarkably, from an 
elephantine club-foot, with the strong claws only 
apparent, to feet divided and webbed, and so on to 
limbs formed into large undivided paddles, by means 
of which the species wing their way in the rolling 
ocean, as birds through the regions of air. 

The motions of ordinary tortoises on land are 
proverbially slow : they hobble along, with an awk- 
ward irregular gait, on their ill-shaped club-feet, and 
seem with all their toil to make but little way ; they 
do not put the sole fairly to the ground, but rest 
upon the edge, which is furnished with horny la- 
minae, tubercles, or hoof-like nails. Ill-provided as 
they may appear to be for the work of burrowing, 
yet they excavate pits with unexpected facility, 
and by dint of labour contrive to bury them- 
selves in the soft ground, scraping up the earth with 
the fore-feet, and throwing it behind with the poste- 
rior pair. Hybernation appears to be general 
among the terrestrial species. 

Tortoises eat slowly and deliberately, and we have 
seen them, when at work on their vegetable food, 
place their fore-limbs upon it, so as to press it to 
the ground, when, having seized a portion between 
the jaws, they separate it by drawing the head rapidly 
backwards. 

These animals, as is well known, endure long fast- 
ing with impunity, and are extremely tenacious of 
life, surviving for days, or even weeks, the severest 
wounds and mutilations. We shall not enter into 



TOKTOISES.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



7.1 



any details of experiments. With this tenacity of 
life is connected a low degree of sensation, but a 
high degree of irritability, the characteristics of a 
low grade of existence. In a natural state they live 
through a long succession of years. In the Bishop's 
garden at Peterborough, a tortoise died in 1821, 
which must have exceeded two hundred and twenty 
years. The Lambeth tortoise, which was intro- 
duced into the garden by Archbishop Laud, about 
the year 1625, and which died in 1753, in con- 
sequence of some neglect on the part of the 
gardener, lived in its last situation one hundred 
and twenty-eight years. Gilbert White notices one 
in a village in his neighbourhood, said by tradition 
to be one hundred years old, and records some 
interesting details of one which had been thirty years 
a captive. In the ' Proceedings of the Zoological 
Society' for July, 1833, will be found the notice 
of one of the gigantic tortoises in the gardens, and 
which had been recently presented by Lieutenant 
Sir Charles Colville, late governor of the Mauritius. 
It was " one of those which were brought from the 
Seychelles Islands to the Mauritius or Isle of France, 
in 1766, by the Chevalier Marion du Fresne, and is 
beheved to have since remained unchanged in size 
and appearance ; consequently in 1833 it had been 
sixty-seven years in the island, having been full- 
grown, or at least as large as it was in 1833, and 
hence what its real age might be it was impossible 
to conjecture. Its length, measured along the curve 
of the back, was four feet four inches ; its breadth, 
taken in the same manner, four feet nine inches ; 
the length of the plastron two feet eight inches ; 
the breadth of the same two feet one inch and a 
half; its weight two hundred and eighty-five 
pounds. 

The Chelonia, or tortoises, are divided by MM. 
Dumeril and Bibron into — I. Terrestrial or Land 
Tortoises. II. Marsh Tortoises, or Emydes. III. 
Fluviatile or River Tortoises. IV. Marine Tortoises, 
or Turtles. Terrestrial tortoises have the body 
short and oval, with the carapace greatly arched, 
within which they can withdraw the head, limbs, 
and tail for protection. In the genus Pyxis the an- 
terior part of the plastron is movable on a trans- 
verse hinge, and shuts up the head and fore limbs : 
in the genus Cinixys the posterior part of the cara- 
pace moves on a hinge. Slow, quiet, and inoffen- 
sive, these animals seldom wander far from their ha- 
bitual haunts, and trust only to their passive means 
of defence when molested ; yet so strong is their 
natural intrenchment, and so enduringly can they 
remain cooped within, that, man excepted, there 
are few ordinary animals which they have much 
cause to fear ; the eagle, hawk, or crow may indeed 
manage in one way or another to kill small species ; 
they may soar up with their victim and let it fall 
from a vast elevation, or the crow may pick away 
at the head, withdrawn within the shell, and bit by 
bit tear out its prey, but a large species of two hun- 
dredweight may bid deiiance to any land animal. 
It is rarely, if ever, that terrestrial tortoises enter the 
water ; they are often, however, found to live along 
its margin, or in the neighbourhood of streams and 
lakes, influenced doubtless by the abundance of ve- 
getation, and the soft quality of the soil, since they 
not only dig a shallow pit in which to hybernate 
(at least in extra tropical countries), but bury their 
eggs, lightly covering them with earth, and leaving 
them to be brought to maturity by the warmth of the 
sun. The eggs of terrestrial tortoises are generally 
round ; some, however, are elongated, but are never 
of the oval shape of those of a fowl. They are 
covered with a calcareous shell of considerable firm- 
ness. 

The plates of horn with which the bony carapace 
is covered, are often beautifully stained and marbled, 
or spotted, and adorned with alternate concentric 
lines and furrows, disposed in regular figures. The 
young, however, after exclusion from the egg, differ 
materially in form and colouring from the adults, 
and the carapace is smooth. In these animals the 
female is generally more thickly built than the male, 
and has the plastron flat, while in the male it is 
more or less concave. 

210C. — The Fubbowed Tortoise 
{Testudo sulcata). In the genus Testudo the nails 
on the anterior feet are five ; carapace and plastron 
immovable. 

The furrowed Tortoise attains to a large size, and 
is a native of Africa ; but if the specimen brought 
by M. d'Orbigny from Patagonia prove to be 
identical, it must also be enumerated among the 
productions of South America : the specimen in 
question was young. The circumstance of Africa 
and South America being alike tenanted by this 
tortoise, as M. Bibron observes, is most extraordi- 
nary, for the entire class of reptiles presents us with 
no other instance : and he adds, " We avow indeed 
that to believe it, there is need that it should be at- 
tested by a person so trustworthy as M. d'Orbigny, 
who himself procured, in Patagonia, where, as he 
Vol. II. 



says it is very common, the young specimen above 
alluded to. Our other examples (in the Paris Mu- 
seum) undoubtedly came from Africa ; two were part 
of the rich zoological collection made at the Cape 
of Good Hope by the late M. Lalande ; a third was 
sent to the museum from Senegal, by a person at- 
tached to the administration of that colony. We 
know besides that M. Riippell also found this species 
in Abyssinia, from which region are the two indi- 
viduals deposited in the museum at Frankfort. In 
this species the carapace is deeply furrowed, and 
dentilated both before and behind. The general 
colour is pale yellow, deeper on the head and limbs 
and round the margin of the carapace. In some in- 
dividuals the carapace is of a deep brown. 

2107, 2108.— The Arachnoid Pyxis 

(Pixis Arachnoides, Bell). In this genus the cara- 
pace is oval, very convex, and deeply notched an- 
teriorly ; the anterior part of the sternum is mov- 
able on a tranverse hinge, shutting in the head and 
limbs when withdrawn. 

This species, the only known example of the 
genus, inhabits India and the Indian islands ; of its 
habits nothing is known. It is of moderate size, and 
beautifully marked. Head, neck, and tail brown ; the 
limbs yellowish, with a black band ; the ground- 
colour of the carapace reddish yellow ; the plates of 
the disc have each eight or ten black triangular 
marks disposed in a radiating manner ; on the mar- 
ginal plates there are longitudinal marks of black, 
which sometimes are extended over the adjacent 
plates. The plastron is reddish yellow, with black 
marks along its lateral margin. Fig. 2107 represents 
the upper. Fig. 2108 the under surface of tliis species. 

We may here observe, that, according to M. 
Bibron, there are twenty-seven species of terrestrial 
tortoise, of which six are Asiatic, three South Euro- 
pean, nine African, and nine American. Of these 
one of the most remarkable is that described by 
Mr. Darwin, as inhabiting the Galapagos, under the 
title of Testudo Indica, a name given to more than 
one giant species. These tortoises are alluded to, so 
far back as 1708, by Woods, Rogers, and Courtney, 
in their voyage round the world (Kerr's ' Voyages,' 
vol. X., p. 373) ; who say, it is the opinion of the 
Spaniards that there are no others in these seas, ex- 
cept at the Galapagos. This species, probably the 
Testudo nigra of Quoy and Gaimard, he describes as 
being very abundant on those remote islands, as 
they were in Dampier's time, whose statement he 
quotes, that " they are so numerous, that five or six 
hundred men might subsist on them for several 
months without any other sort of provisions ;" adding, 
"they are so extraordinarily large and fat, and so 
sweet, that no pullets eat more pleasantly." 

The day on which Mr. Darwin visited the little 
craters in the Galapagos Archipelago was glowing 
hot, and the scrambling over the rough surface, and 
through the intricate thickets, was very fatiguing. 
"But," says Mr. Darwin, "I was well repaid by the 
Cyclopean scene. In my walk I met two large 
tortoises, each of which must have weighed at least 
two hundred pounds. One was eating a piece of 
cactus, and when I approached, it looked at me and 
then quietly walked away ; the other gave a deep 
hiss and drew in his head. These huge reptiles, 
surrounded by the black lava, the leafless shrubs, 
and large cacti, appeared to my fancy like some 
antediluvian animals." 

Mr. Darwin states his belief that these tortoises 
are found in all the islands of the archipelago ; 
certainly in the greater number ; and thus continues 
his description : — " They frequent, in preference, 
the high damp parts, but likewise inhabit the lower 
and arid districts. Some individuals grow to an 
immense size. Mr. Lawson, an Englishman, who 
had, at the time of our visit, charge of the colony, 
told us that he had seen several so large that it 
required six or eight men to lift them from the 
ground, and that some had afforded as much as two 
hundred pounds of meat. The old males are the 
largest, the females rarely growing to so great a 
size. The male can readily be distinguished from 
the female by the greater length of its tail. The 
tortoises which live on those islands where there is 
no water, or in the lower and arid parts of the others, 
chiefly feed on the succulent cactus. Those which 
frequent the higher and damp regions eat the leaves 
of various trees, a kind of berry (called guayavita) 
which is acid and austere, and likewise a pale green 
filamentous lichen, that hangs in tresses from the 
boughs of the trees. 

" The tortoise is very fond of water, drinking 
large quantities, and wallowing in the mud. The 
larger islands alone possess springs, and these are 
always situated towards the central parts, and at a 
considerable elevation. The tortoises, therefore, 
which frequent the lower districts, when thirsty, are 
obliged to travel from a long distance. Hence, 
broad and well-beaten paths radiate off in every 
direction from the wells even down to the sea-coast ; 
and the Spaniards, by following them up, first dis- 



covered the watering-places. When I landed at 
Chatham Island, I could not imagine what animal 
travelled so methodically along the well-chosen 
tracks. Near the springs it was a curious spectacle 
to behold many of these great monsters ; one set 
eagerly travelling onwards with outstretched necks, 
and another set returning, after having drunk their 
fill. When the tortoise arrives at the spring, quite 
regardless of any spectator, it buries its head in the 
water above its eyes and greedily swallows great 
mouthfuls, at the rate of about ten in a minute. 
The inhabitants say that each animal stays three or 
four days in the neighbourhood of the water, and 
then returns to the lower country ; but they differed 
in their accounts respecting the frequency of these 
visits. The animal probably regulates them ac 
cording to the nature of the food which it has 
consumed. It is, however, certain that tortoises 
can subsist even on those islands where there is no 
other water than what falls during a "few lainy days, 
in the year. 

" I believe it is well ascertained that the bladder 
of the frog acts as a reservoir for the moisture 
necessary to its existence : such seems to be the case 
with the tortoise. For some time after a visit to 
the springs, the bladder of these animals is distended 
with fluid, which is said gradually to decrease in 
volume and to become less pure. The inhabitants, 
when walking in the lower district, and overcome 
with thirst, often take advantage of this circum- 
stance, by killing a tortoise, and if the bladder is 
full, drinking its contents. In one I saw killed, the 
fluid was quite limpid, and had only a very sligluly 
bitter taste. The inhabitants, however, always drink 
first the water in the pericardium, which is described 
as being best. The tortoises, when moving towards 
any definite point, travel by night and by day, and 
arrive at their journey's end much sooner than would 
be expected. The inhabitants, from observation on 
marked individuals, consider that they can move a 
distance of about eight miles in two or three days. 
One large tortoise which I watched, I found walked 
at the rate of sixty yards in ten minutes, that is, 
three hundred and sixty in the hour, or four miles a 
day — allowing also a little time for it to eat on the 
road. During the breeding season, when the male 
and female aie together, the male utters a hoarse 
roar or bellowing, which, it is said, can be heard at 
the distance of more than a hundred yards. The 
female never uses her voice, and the male only at 
such times ; so that when the people hear this noise, 
they know the two are together. They were at 
this time (October) laying their eggs. The female, 
where the soil is sand, deposits them together, and 
covers them up with sand; but where the ground 
is rocky, she drops them indiscriminately in any 
hollow. Mr. Bynoe found seven placed in a line in 
a fissure. The egg is white and spherical ; one 
which I measured was seven inches and three- 
eighths in circumference. The young animals, as 
soon as they are hatched, fall a prey in great 
numbers to the buzzard with the habits of the 
caracara. The old ones seem generally to die 
from accidents, as from falling down precipices. 
At least several of the inhabitants told me they 
had never found one dead without some such 
apparent cause. The inhabitants believe that these 
animals are absolutely deaf; certainly they do not 
overhear a person walking close behind them. I 
was always amused, when overtaking one of these 
great monsters as it was quietly pacing along, to see 
how suddenly, the instant I passed, it would draw 
in its head and legs, and uttering a deep hiss fall to 
the ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead. I 
frequently got on their backs, and then, upon giving 
a few raps on the hinder part of the shell, they 
would rise up and walk away ; but I found it very 
difficult to keep my balance. The flesh of this ani- 
mal is largely employed, both fresh and salted ; and 
a beautifidly clear oil is prepared from the fat. 
When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in 
the skin near its tail, so as to see inside its body, 
whether the fat under the dorsal plate is thick. If 
it is not, the animal is liberated ; and it is said to 
recover soon from this strange operation. In order 
to secure the tortoises, it is not suflacient to turn 
them like turtle, for they are often able to regain 
their upright position. 

" It was confidently asserted that the tortoises 
coming from different islands in the archipelago 
were slightly different in form ; and that in certain 
islands they attained a larger average size than in 
others. Mr. Lawson maintained that he could at 
once tell from which island any one was brought. 
Unfortunately, the specimens which came home in 
the Beagle were too small to institute any certain 
comparison. This tortoise, which goes by the name of 
Testudo Indicus, is at present found in many parts 
of the worid. It is the opinion of Mr. Bell and 
some others who have studied reptiles, that it is not 
improbable that they all originally came from this 
archipelago. When it is known how long these 
islands have been frequented by the buccaneers, and 

L 2 




X103.-SkuU of Mataauta, from (liow. 




SIOS.— Skull of Maumata, from belowt' 




•IM — FarlotradTorteUe. 




2107.— Arachnoid PyxiSi fro™ above. 





lOM^SksU of ladian Tortoise, from tkmt. 




2100.— Skull of Indian TortoiM, fitjm bddw. 



I.— Arachnoid rjxi>,&am below 




tl04,r-AnUo( Hatamata. 





3098<— SliuU of Indian Tortoise. 



WOO.— AUigaWrTottoiK. 



/ 

v/. 






aiO».— Skull of Matamata, back view. 



SllO.— Matamata. 



8101.— Skull of Indian Tortoise 





ar.S.— Leathery Tuille. 



r.H.—lUvVfWa Tiittlo. 






8116.— PlMtronof Leathery Turtle. 




111.— New Holland Chelodina. 



8112. — American River-Tonoiae. 



77 



78 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Tortoises. 



that they constantly took away numbers of these 
animals alive, it seems very probable that they 
should have distributed them in different parts of 
the world. If this tortoise does not originally come 
from these islands, it is a remarkable anomaly ; in- 
asmuch as nearly all the other land inhabitanU 
seem to have their birthplace here." 

We may now proceed to the Marsh Tortoises. 
The marsh tortoises form a very extensive family, 
and are respectively dispersed within certain laU- 
tudes, both through the Old and New World, occur- 
ring in Australia, where hitherto no terrestrial tor- 
toise has been detected. These animals tenant 
swamps, lakes, ponds, and small rivers, and swim 
■with considerable facility; on land they are more 
active and alert than the species of the previous 
family, but they never venture far from the water, 
which they invariably seek as a refuge from danger. 
The toes, instead of being buried, are developed ex- 
ternally, and are movable, but are united to each 
other by means of intervening webs of greater or 
less extent. The marsh tortoises are more flattened 
in their figure than the land tortoises, and are of an 
oval outline, and with the carapace and plastron less 
completely solidified. In young animals, indeed, 
the spaces between the nbs and the component 
parts of the plastron are separated by a cartilagi- 
nous medium, which ossifies slowly. The horny 
plates covering the carapace are thin, and compa- 
ratively smooth. The neck is long, as is also in 
many instances the tail. In some genera, as Cistudo, 
the plastron is attached to the carapace by a carti- 
laginous union, and is, besides, divided into two 
movable portions by a transverse hinge, so that 
the head,'tail, and limbs, when retracted, may be 
completely shut up. The species so characterized 
are called box-tortoises. In some, on the contrary, 
as in Emysaurus, neither the plastron nor carapace 
is sufficiently developed to admit of the retraction 
and concealment of the head and limbs ; and in 
others, though the limbs may be concealed, the 
head remains constantly exposed. 

In their modes of life these marsh tortoises differ 
greatly from their terrestrial relatives ; they are car- 
nivorous in their habits, pursuing fishes, newts, frogs, 
and insects with eagerness. Some are formidable 
from their size and ferocity. Many, as the Painted 
Terrapin (Emys picta),are very beautifully marked. 
The females deposit their eggs in shallow excava- 
tions, which they make on the sunny banks of the 
waters they ordinarily inhabit; the young, when 
hatched, instinctively make for the stream or pool, 
but numbers fall a prey to birds, snakes, and small 
carnivorous mammalia. 

The number of species, according to M. Bibron, 
amounts to seventy-four; viz., three European, 
eighteen Asiatic, six African, twenty-three South 
American, twenty-two North American, two Aus- 
tralian. To the latter, other species may now be 
added. 

The marsh tortoises are divided by M. Bibron into 
two groups ; viz., Cryptodera, in which the long 
neck, sheathed in loose skin, is capable of being 
completely withdrawn under the centre of the an- 
terior margin of the carapace ; and Pieurodera, in 
which the neck is not properly retractile, so that the 
head can be concealed only by the neck being folded 
to one side of the opening of the skull. There are 
other sbructural differences, into which we need not 
enter. 

2109. — The Alligator Toktoise 

(Emi/saunis serpentinus). Chelydra serpentina, 
Schweigger. It is to the section of Cryptodera, that 
this extraordinary species belongs, which seems to 
unite in its aspect the forms of the tortoise and 
crocodile. Its jaws are strong and hooked ; its head 
large, and covered with small plates ; its neck long, 
powerful, and capable of being retracted ; its limbs 
are thick ; and the feet are armed with five robust 
claws before, four behind ; the tail is long, and 
surmounted by a scaly crest, and neither tliis nor 
the limbs are capable of being retracted within the 
shell ; along the back of the fore-limbs hangs a 
loose expansion of coarse granulated skin ; two 
small barbies, or rounded excrescences, are under 
the chin. The plastron is small, but immovable. 

The aspect of this animal is ferocious, and its 
chp.racter accords with its aspect ; it is a native of 
the lakes, rivers, and morasses of Carolina, and 
when adult attains to very large dimensions, and is 
much to be dreaded. It swims with great rapidity, 
and pursues fish with avidity, tearing them in pieces 
by means of its talons. It also lurks amidst the 
luxuriant herbage of oozy swamps, or the reedy 
vegetation about the margin of rivers and lakes, 
ready to pounce upon aquatic birds, or other animals 
which come within its reach, and upon which it 
suddenly darts, catching them with a snap of its 
formidable mandibles. Mr. Bell records that he 
has known a stick of half an inch in diameter at 
once snapped asunder by the jaws of one of this 
species; and, as we can affirm, it is not safe to 



approach them unguardedly ; they will not only 
snap at the hands, if brought too near them, 
but repeat the attack, with every demonstration 
of malice. The individual which came under 
our observation was very young, and only two feet 
six inches in length ; yet, from the strength and 
fierceness it displayed, we were easily enabled to 
form an idea of the danger to be apprehended, in 
the case of a person, in the midst of one of the 
morasses of Carolina, suddenly coming in contact 
with an adult of large dimensions lurking in his 
hiding-place. 

The carapace of this species is of an oblong figure, 
depressed with three longitudinal ridges above ; the i 
general colour is brown ; the jaws and head are of 
an olive tint. It is the only known example of the 
genus. 

2110.— The Matamata 

{Chclys Matamata) ; Ch. fimbriata, Spix. This 
singular animal belongs to the section Pieurodera. 

The strange appendages about the head, and the 
proboscis-like elongation of the nose, render this 
tortoise very remarkable. The head is depressed ; 
the eyes small; the limbs strong ; the nails robust ; 
and the tail short ; the snout is flexible, forming a 
double tube ; the mouth is extremely wide ; the 
jaws are defended by thin horny laminae ; along the 
back of the neck are two rows of fringed cutaneous 
appendages, anterior to which, on the top of the 
head on each side, is an ear-like membranous pro- 
longation ; two fringed membranes hang from the 
chin, and four others are placed across the throat. 
The carapace is depressed, with a longitudinal keel 
down the centre, and a furrow on each side of it. 
This species, which v^lien adult attains to three feet 
in length, is a native of South America, and in 
particular of Cayenne ; but, according to Latreille, 
is much scarcer there than formerly, owing to the 
estimation in which its flesh is held as food, an 
incessant persecution having been maintained 
against it. It is said, by this same author, to be 
nocturnal in its habits, and herbivorous. Such, 
however, is not the case ; it is certainly carnivorous, 
inhabiting lakes and rivers, where, with its proboscis 
above the surface, it conceals itself amidst floating 
aquatic herbage, awaiting the approach of water- 
fowl, fishes, &c., which it seizes when within reach. 
It swims rapidly, and darts with great velocity on 
its prey. This species was first described by 
Bruguiere, in 1792. (See 'Journal d'Histoiie 
Naturelle.') 

2111. — The New Holland Chelodina 

(Chelodina Novm HoUandicB). The head and neck 
of the species of Chelodina remind us rather of a 
snake than of a tortoise, so narrow, flat, and pointed 
is the former, and so elongated the latter ; the jaws 
are slender, the gape wide ; the eyes vertically 
placed ; the tail very short ; the carapace depressed 
and oval ; the plastron broad. 

This singular tortoise inhabits the pools and 
stagnant or sluggish waters of New Holland, and is 
said to prey upon various aquatic reptiles, as frogs, 
&c., and fishes, which its long neck enables it to 
seize, as they approach its lurking-place, amidst 
aquatic herbage, or in the oozy mud. It is said to 
be rapid and active in its movements in the water. 

Two allied species are natives of South America. 

We now introduce the Fluviatile or River Tor- 
toises. From their conformation, the fluviatile tor- 
toises are exclusively aquatic, coming on shore only 
in order to deposit their eggs, and this they do 
stealthily by night, returning immediately to their 
congenial element. 

The essential characters of these tortoises are thus 
summed up by MM. Dumeril and Bibron: — "The 
carapace is a flexible cartilaginous expansion, form- 
ing the circumference of a centre of bone, by which 
it is supported ; the surface of this bone, which is 
nearly flat, is rugose, and marked with inequalities ; 
the ribs arc free at their ends ; the head is narrow 
and elongated ; and the nose terminates in a flexible 
preboscis; the jaws are trenchant, and are furnished 
externally with folds of skin resembling lips ; the 
eyes are prominent, placed near each other, and di- 
rected obliquely upwards. The plastron (Fig. 2093) 
is abbreviated posteriorly, but advances anteriorly, 
so as to come under the neck ; it is not perfectly os- 
seous, especially in the centre, and is united to the 
carapace by cartilage. The tail is short and thick ; 
the limbs are robust, with large webbed feet; of 
the toes, three only on each foot are armed with 
nails, these are nearly straight, and channelled 
underneath." 

To this we may add that the neck is long, and 
capable not only of being retracted and extended 
with great rapidity, but of performing lateral ser- 
pentine movements. 

These tortoises are fierce and voracious, and feed 
upon fishes, reptiles, birds, &c., at which they dart 
like a pike, from their hiding-place, launching out 
their long neck and snapping at their prey with 



arrow-like rapidity. Their flesh is- held in estima- 
tion, and they are taken by means of a hook and 
line; but so fiercely do they defend themselves, and 
so severely do they bite, taking out the portion 
seized with a snap, that the fishermen cut on their 
heads as soon as possible. Mr. Bell recoids an in- 
stance of a sailor having his finger snapped oft' by a 
trionyx (Gymnopus), which was on shipboai-d and 
ultimatelv placed in the Surrey Zoological Gardens. 

Though these tortoises seldom come on shore, 
they may often be seen slumbering on trunks of 
floating trees, or on rocks jutting above the surface 
of the water ; on the least alarm , however, they plunge 
and instantaneously disappear. 

No species of this family is European. All those 
known to naturalists are natives of the large lakes 
and rivei-s of the warmer regions, the Nile, Niger, 
and other rivers of Africa; the Euphrates, the 
Tigris, the Ganges, Sec. ; and in America, the 
Mississippi and Ohio. They attain to gigantic di- 
mensions. 

2112. — The Americax Riveb-Tortoise 

(Gymnopus spinifenu). Trionyx ferox, Schweigger ; 
Testudo ferox, Schoepfer. This ferocious animal is 
a native of the rivers of Georgia and Florida, and 
also in the lakes situated both above and below the 
falls of Niagara ; it is not uncommon in the Wabash, 
a tributary of the Ohio, just before its junction with 
the Mississippi. ' 

An aquatic tyrant, this species is a terrible de- 
stroyer not only of fish, but also of water-fowl, quad- 
rupeds, and even young alligators, which it attacks 
with the utmost fury. On account of its flesh it is 
taken by means of a hook baited with fish, but when 
drawn on land it struggles desperately, darting its 
head right and left at its assailants with inconceiv- 
able velocity. In May the females of this species 
seek out some sandy spot on the river's bank, for the 
purpose of depositing their eggs, often crawling up 
very steep declivities, in order to secure a sunny 
aspect. The eggs, which are from fifty to sixty in 
number, are spherical, and very brittle. The young 
make their appearance in July. 

An allied species (G. muticus) inhabits the same 
localities. The other species are Asiatic and 
African. 

From the fluviatile we may now pass to the Ma- 
rine Tortoises, or Turtles. 

The marine tortoises, or turtles, are at once to be 
distinguished by the long paddle-like form of the 
limbs, of which the anterior pair are by far the most 
developed, and are used as oars, or rather as aquatic 
wings, by means of which they sail about, plough 
the waves, descend, or rise with the utmost address. 
On the land, which is only visited at certain seasons, 
these animals shuffle along, and with laborious 
efforts make only a slow progress. When turned 
over on their back on a flat sandy shore, they are 
unable, from the depression of the carapace, to 
recover their natural position. The marine tortoises 
are found in all the seas of the warm climates, but 
principally towards the torrid zone in the equinoctial 
ocean ; on the shores of the Antilles, Cuba, Jamaica, 
the Caiman Islands, and Hayti ; in the Atlantic 
Ocean ; at the Cape de Verd and Ascension Islands ; 
in the Indian Ocean ; at the Isles of France, Mada- 
gascar, Seychelles, and Rodriguez ; at Vem Cruz, 
in the Gulf of Mexico ; and at the Sandwich and 
Galapagos Islands, in the Pacific Ocean. Often 
are they seen slumbering motionless on a calm 
sunlit sea, seven or eight hundred leagues from land. 
They have their favourite breeding-places, to which 
thousands periodically resort, often travelling thither 
from immense distances. The eggs of most of the 
species are excellent, but the albuminous portion, 
or " white," does acquire firmness by boiling. Of 
the estimation in which the flesh of the green 
turtle is held, little need be said : in our island it is 
a luxury, but it also forms a useful and salutary 
portion of the stores of vessels engaged in the com- 
merce of the tropical and southern seas. It is the 
Hawksbill Turtle (Chelonia imbricata) which fur- 
nishes the horny plates, covering the carapace, 
known under the name of tortoiseshell. 

The jaws in all the turtles are robust ; the beak of 
the upper-jaw is hooked downwards ; the edges are 
sharp, sometimes serrated, and the lower mandible 
is received into a groove of the upper. Most feed 
upon various marine plants, and dive to tear them 
up from their beds ; some, however, feed upon Crus- 
tacea, shell-fish, cuttle-fishes, echini, &c., as the 
hawksbill, loggerhead, aud leathery tortoises. 
They exhale a musky odour. Audubon says, " The 
hawksbilled species feeds on sea-weeds, crabs, 
various kinds of shell-fish, and fishes ; the logger- 
head mostly on the fish of conch-shells of large 
size, which by means of its powerful beak it 
is enabled to crush to pieces, apparently with as 
much ease as a man cracks a walnut. The trunk 
(leathery) turtle feeds on molhisca, fish Crustacea, 
sea urchins (echini), and various marine plants." 

Most, especially the leathery turtle, utter, when 



Turtles.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



79 



entangled in nets, or when wounded, loud roars, re- 
sounding to a great distance. 

Fig. 2113 represents a scene of turtle-catching by 
night on one of the West India Islands (a, the 
Green Turtle, Chelonia midas ; b, the Hawksbill 
Turtle, Ch. imbricata). 

It is on such a low sandy beach as that depicted, 
that the turtles deposit their eggs, taking caie that 
they are placed beyond high- water mark. " On 
nearing the shore," says M. Audubon, " and mostly 
on fine calm moonlight nights, the turtle raises her 
head above the water, being still distant thirty or 
forty yards from the beach, looks around her, and at- 
tentively examines the objects on sliore. Should 
she observe nothing likely to disturb her intended 
operations, she emits a loud hissing sound, by which 
such of her enemies as are unaccustomed to it are 
startled, and so apt to remove to another place, al- 
though unseen by her. Should she he_ar any more 
noise, or perceive any indications of danger, she in- 
stantly sinks and goes off to a distance ; but should 
everything be quiet, she advances slowly towards 
the beach, crawls over it, her head raised to the 
full stretch of her neck, and when she has reached 
a place fitted for her purpose she gazes all around in 
silence. Finding all well, she proceeds to form a 
hole in the sand, which she effects by removing it 
from under her body with her hind-flappers, scoop- 
ing it out with so much dexterity that the sides 
seldom if ever fall in. The sand is raised alternately 
with each flapper, as with a large ladle, until it has 
accumulated behind her, when, supporting herself 
with her head and fore-part on the ground, she with 
a. spring from each flapper sends the sand around 
her, scattering it to the distance of several feet. In 
this manner the hole is dug to the depth of eighteen 
inches or sometimes more than two feet. This 
labour I have seen performed in the short period of 
nine minutes. The eggs are then dropped one by 
one, and disposed in regular layers, to the number 
of one hundred and fifty, or sometimes nearly two 
hundred. The whole time spent in this operation 
may be about twenty minutes. She now scrapes 
the loose sand back over the eggs, and so levels and 
smooths the surface, that few persons seeing the 
spot would imagine that anything had been done to 
it. This accomplished to her mind, she retreats to 
the water with all possible despatch, leaving the 
hatching of the eggs to the heat of the sand'. When 
a turtle or loggerhead, for example, is in the act of 
dropping her eggs, she will not move, although one 
Rhouid go up to her, or even seat himself on her 
back ; but tiie moment it is finished, off she starts, 
nor would it then be possible for one, unless he were 
as strong as Hercules, to turn her over and secure 
her." 

It is at this crisis that the turtle fishery is carried 
on. " In spite," says Count Lacepede, " of the 
darkness which is chosen by the female tortoises for 
concealment when employed in laying their eggs, 
they cannot effectually escape from the pursuit of 
their enemies: the fishers wait for them on the 
shore, at the beginning of the night, especially 
when it is moonlight, and, as they come from 
the sea, or as they return after laying their eggs, 
they either despatch them with blows of a club, or 
turn them quickly over on their backs, not giving 
them time either to defend themselves, or to blind 
their assailants, by throwing up the sand with their 
fins. When very large, it requires the efforts of 
several men to turn them over, and they must often 
employ the assistance of handspikes or levers for 
that purpose. The buckler of this species is so flat 
as to render it impossible for the animal to recover 
the recumbent posture, when it is once turned on 
its back. 

" A small number of fishers may turn over forty 
or fifty tortoises, full of eggs, in less than three 
hours. During the day, they are employed in 
securing those which they had caught in the pre- 
ceding night. They cut them up, and salt the flesh 
and the eggs. Sometimes they may extract above 
thirty pints of a yellow or greenish oil from one 
large individual ; this is employed for burning, or 
when fresh is used with different kinds of food. 
Sometimes they drag the tortoises they have caught, 
on their backs, to enclosures, in which they are 
reserved for occasional use. 

" The tortoise-Kshers from the West Indies and 
the Bahamas, who catch these animals on the coast 
of Culja and its adjoining islands, particularly the 
Caimans, usually complete their cargoes in six 
weeks or two months ; they afterwards return to 
their own islands with the salted turtle, which is 
used for food both by the whites and the negroes. 
This salt turtle is in as great request in the Ame- 
rican colonies as the salted cod of Newfoundland 
is in many parts of Europe ; and the fishing is fol- 
lowed by all these colonists, particularly by the 
British, in small vessels, on various parts of the 
coast of Spanish America, and the neighbouring 
desert islands. 

" The green turtle is likewise often caught at sea 



in calm weather, and in moonlight nights. For i 
this purpose two men go together in a small boat, 
which is rowed by one of them, while the other is 
provided with a harpoon, similar to that used for 
killing whales. Whenever they discover a large I 
tortoise, by the froth which it occasions on the 
water in rising to the surface, they hasten to the [ 
spot as quickly as possible, to prevent it from 
escaping. The harpooner immediately throws his 
harpoon with sufficient force to penetrate through 
the buckler to the flesh ; the tortoise instantly 
dives, and the fisher gives out a line, which is 
fixed to the harpoon, and when the tortoise is 
spent with loss of blood, it is hauled into the boat or 
on shore." 

2114. — The Hawk's-bill Turtle 

(Chelonia imbricata). La Caret, Lacepede. 

This species is well known, and much sought after 
for the sake of the scales of the carapace, which are 
the tortoiseshell of commerce ; and which are cruelly 
separated from the living animal by presenting the 
convex surface to a glowing fire ; as is done at 
Exeter Island, and other places where the fishery of 
this animal is carried on. It appears that after this 
barbarous operation the poor creatures are set at 
liberty, in order, as the shell grows again, that ano- 
ther crop of tortoiseshell may, in a future year, be 
taken : the second shell, however, is very thin and 
inferior. The eggs of this turtle are excellent, but 
the flesh is bad. 

The hawk's-biU turtle is not only an inhabitant of 
the warmer latitudes of the American seas, it fre- 
quents the Islands of Bourbon, the Seychelles, Am- 
boyna, New Guinea, and the Indian Seas. Three 
instances are on record of its having been captured 
on our shores. It attains to a large size, but seldom 
equals the green turtle, which often weighs three, 
four, or five hundred pounds, and sometimes even 
eight hundred, measuring six or seven feet in length. 

2115. — The Leathery Turtle 

(Spargis coriacea). Testudo Lyra, Bechst. Tortue 
Luth of the French. 

In the genus Spargis the osseus structure of the 
carapace and plastron is covered with a leathery 
skin, instead of plates, tuberculous in the young, 
smooth in adults, with seven longitudinal-ridsed 
dorsal lines, slightly serrated. The plastron has five 
tuberculous ridges. The paddles have no distinct 
nails. In the leathery tortoise the muzzle is pointed, 
the jaws are of enormous power, and the upper has 
an acute tooth-like prominence at the anterior part 
on each side, with a deep indentation behind, and a 
triangular excavation anteriorly between the two 
teeth, for the reception of the shar.p turned-up apex 
of the lower jaw. The opening of the eyelids is almost 
vertical, and when closed the edge of the posterior 
(or lower) covers that of the anterior. The anterior 
paddles are immensely developed. This gigantic 
tortoise occasionally weighs from sixteen to seven- 
teen hundred pounds ; and stray individuals have 
been captured both on our shores and those of the 
adjacent continent, weighing seven or eight hun- 
dred. This species is found in the Atlantic, the Pa- 
cific, and Indian Oceans. It regularly visits the 
Tortueas, or Turtle islands of Florida, for the purpose 
of depositing its eggs, arriving there, according to 
Audubon, later than the other species, and being 
moreover less cautious in choosing a place for their 
concealment. The number of eggs which it de- 
posits is about three hundred and fifty, in two sets. 
It is occasionally seen in the Mediterranean, and is 
said by Latreille to breed on the sandy shores of 
Barbary. When attacked and wounded, this turtle 
utters loud and piercing cries, which have been 
heard at the distance of a quarter of a league. Though 
I very fat, the flesh is coarse and hard, and has been 
known to produce most severe effects in persons 
who have partaken of it ; we cannot however af- 
firm that it is poisonous. 

Fig. 2116 represents the Plastron of the Leathery 
Turtle. 



ORDER SAURIA (LIZARDS). 

This order includes a vast assemblage of living 
beings, from the ferocious crocodile to the harmless 
little lizard of our copses, or the arboreal chameleon 
of the borders of the Mediterranean. It is in the 
glowing regions of the intertropics that these beings 
abound, a few species only, and those of small size, 
tenanting our latitudes. 

Great is the diversity of form and habits among 
the Sauria : some are more or less aquatic, some ar- 
boreal, others strictly terrestrial, and a few on ex- 
panded parachutes are capable of skimming, like the 
flying squirrel, from tree to tree. The limbs are in 
general four, the figure is elongated, always ter- 
mmating in a tail ; the body is covered either by hard 
horny or bony plates, by scales or by granulations. 
The eyes, excepting in certain instances, are pro- 
tected by eyelids. Generally a tympanic membrane 



covers the external orifice of the organs of hearing. 
The tongue differs greatly in form ; in some it is a 
rudiment, in some long and forked, in others fleshy ; 
it, is lubricated by a glutinous saliva. All are as a 
rule oviparous. The ribs are movable, and in part 
attached to the breast-bone (sternum) ; but besides 
these, in some the abdominal parietes are supported, 
by a series of slender rib-like bones, free, but con- 
verging to a medial line. The mouth is armed 
with teeth ; the lungs are extensive. Most if not 
all change their cuticle, and like the snake appear 
in brighter colours. Hybernation is gervjral. 

Family CROCODILID.'E (CROCODILES). 

Many writers regard the crocodiles as forming a dis- 
tinct order, under the term Loricata] (Kmydosauri, 
Gray), in allusion to the peculiar coat of hard mail 
by which they are protected. ''Jhey are distin- 
guished," says Mr. Bell, "by several important cha- 
racters ; of these the most tangible and obvious is 
that upon which the name of the order (Loricata) is 
founded, the covering of the whole back part of the 
neck, body, and tail presenting distinct series of bones 
of moderate size, imbedded as it were in the sub- 
stance of the skin, and covered externally with a 
cuticle. These dermal bones are usually furnished 
with a crest, which renders them exceedingly strong, 
and they altogether form a panoply of defence which 
can resist the attacks of the most powerful enemies 
of whatever kind." 

We need not say that these animals are fierce and 
carnivorous ; they often take their prey in the water, 
retiring to some retreat on the shore in order to de- 
vour it, and relish it in a state of putrescence. 

The tail is long, thick, muscular, and compressed ; 
it is ridged above. The limbs are short ; the an- 
terior feet have five toes, of which the two outer- 
most are destitute of a nail ; the hinder feet have four 
toes more or less united by intervening webs. The 
head is depressed above, furrowed and rugged. The 
jaws are enormous, and the teeth are numerous, 
thick, of unequal length, of a conical figure, and 
hollow at the ijase, which receives, when implanted 
in the socket, the germ of the tooth destined to re- 
place it (see Fig, 2117) ; they are arranged in a line 
at a distance from each other, the intervals mutually ■ 
receiving the teeth of the opposite jaw, when both 
are closed. The auditory orifice is protected by a 
strong movable lid or valve capable of being raised 
or shut down at pleasure. The eyes are small, but 
bright, and the pupil is vertical and linear. Besides 
the outer eyelitis there is a transparent membrana 
nictitans. The nostrils are seated at the extremity 
of the muzzle on its upper aspect ; they are close 

1 together and valvular ; the nasal canals do not open, 
into the mouth, but into a post-oral space, divided 
from the mouth by a valvular cartilaginous expan- 
sion of the OS hyoides, which is so accurately ad- 
justed to a depending portion of the palate as com- 
pletely to bound the back of the mouth ; hence, if 
the nostrils only are raised above the water, the cro- 
codile may keep the mouth open below or hold his 
prey to drown, himself breathing at ease. In the 
act of swallowing, the valve is drawn down by the 
muscles of deglutition, so as to leave for an instant 
the passage free, and the food bolted in large 
masses, is received into the dilatable gullet. The 
space between the two branches of the lower jaw is 
muscular, covered internally with a yellow skin, 
full of glands, whence oozes a viscid saliva. This 
part represents the tongue, if indeed we may not 

: say that this organ is wanting. Beneath the throat 
are two large musk glands opening externally by 

: small orifices, whence exudes an unctuous matter, of 
a strong odour. It is difficult to conjecture its use. 
These fierce reptiles are divided into three groups 
or genera : Alligators or Caimans ; true Crocodiles ; 
and Gavials. 

2118. — Thb Pike-kosed Caiman or Alligator 

(Alligator Lucius). The caimans (or caymans) are 
peculiar to America, and distinguished by the fol- 
lowing characters :— the head is broad ; the muzzle 
oblong and depressed ; the teeth are of unequal 
length, and the fourth on each side, from the front 
teeth, is elongated and received into a cavity of the 
upper jaw when the mouth is closed ; the hinder 
limbs are rounded and destitute of the ridged scales 
down the hinder margin so conspicuous in the true 
crocodiles, and the webs between the toes are much 
less developed. See Fig 2119; a, the Hind Leg of 
the Caiman ; b, of the Crocodile. The form of the 
Head is well depicted at Fig. 2120 ; it is of the A. 
Lucius. 

Several species are known, distinguished among 
other points by the differences in the arrangement 
of the cervical osseus plates, which is, however, 
subject to certain variations even in the same 
species. 

Fig. 2121 shows the Cervical Plates of the Pike- 

I nosed Caiman (A. Lucius). Fig. 2122 those of the 
,Iacar6 (A. Sclerops). Fig. 2123 those of the Spec- 

i| tacled Caiman (A. Palpebrosus). Fig 2124 those of 






ail4_CerTical PUla of Specudeil Catmui. 



2111.— Cmkal PlatM ot Plka-nowd Ctlman. 



SISt.— Cerriotl PUt« of Spacuclad Caioun. 





Ziaj.-Cerriaa Plato of Jtcui. 



8118.— Pika-nwed Caiman, or Alligator. 




81 IT.— Tooth of Crocodile, 





2! 20.— Head of Caiman. 



80 



»MS.— SlMltton and gltraam of Pike-nowd Oaitoan, or AUljalor. 




Sn9.— Hindi*; of Caiman (■), and of Crocodile (()■ 




S12fl.— Sknlli of Crocodile and Caiman. 

No. 61. Vol, II. 



^\19 

2 130 — CoHimon Crocodile. 



[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



81 



82 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Crocodiubs. 



a variety of the Spectacled Caiman, accordinfj to 
M. Bibron ; termed by Schneider, Crocodilus Tngo- 
natus. 

J n Fisj. 2125, a renresents the Skeleton of the Pike- 
nosed Caiman, and well illustrates its structure, 
especially the peculiarity of the cervical vertebrte, 
with their lateral appendages, which limit the extent 
of motion in the head from side to side ; b, the ster- 
num, with the cartilages of the ribs attached to it, 
and the additional slender ribs supporting the abdo- 
minal parietes. 

Like the rest of its genus, the piked-nosed caiman 
inhabits exclusively fresh waters, seldom appearing 
in the brackish mouths of rivers, much less venturing 
to cross straits of the sea from island to island, as do 
the crocodiles. This species, which is said to attain 
to upwards of twenty feet in length, is very exten- 
sively spread in North America. It is found in the 
Mississippi, in the lakes and rivers of Louisiana and 
of Carolina, and specimens have been brought from 
Savannah and New Orleans. According to Bartram 
these formidable reptiles may be seen in troops, in 
creeks and bays of the river where fish abound ; and 
he states that he saw in Florida vast numbers of 
alligators as well as fish, in a mineral spring near 
the Musquito river, though the water at its exit from 
the earth was nearly at the boiling point and strongly 
impregnated with copper and vitriol. Of all the 
alligators this, if we are to credit what Bartram 
says, is the most dangerous : it attacks both quad- 
rupeds and men, while bathing or ciossinsr the 
rivers, and is even said to prefer the flesh of the 
negro to all other food. W e do not suppose that 
such diet is often obtained. It is during the nieht 
that the alligator is most active, this being the chief 
time in which it pursues its prey. Assembled 
numbers beset the mouth of some secluded creek, 
into which they have driven shoals of fishes, and 
their bellowing, not unlike that of a bull, may be 
heard at the distance of a mile. In order to seize 
the fish, they dive under the shoal, and, having 
snapped up a victim, rise to the surface, toss it into 
the air to get rid of the water, which has filled the 
mouth, catch it as it falls, bolt it, and renew the 
chase. When they happen to seize upon any 
animal, as a pig or dog, too large to be swallowed 
at once, they conceal the carcase in some hole under 
the bank till it begins to putrify, when they drag it 
forth, carry it on shore amidst the concealment of 
luxuriant herbage, and devour it at leisure. 

When about to lay, the female excavates a deep 
hole in the sandy or soft bank of the river, and 
deposits her eggs in layers, separating each layer by 
means of an intervenmg bed of leaves, dry grass, 
and mud ; the number is fifty or sixty : over these 
she watches with care till the young are hatched, 
and for some months afterwards leads them about, 
takes care of them, and defends them from enemies. 
Birds and beasts of prey, however, are on the watch, 
and seldom more than half the brood reach the 
water; there they are subject to the attacks of large 
fishes, and even the grown males of the same 
«pecies. 

During the warmth of summer, these animals may 
be seen, indolently basking on the bank, during the 
middle of the day, luxuriating in the rays of the 
sun, or floating on the surface of the still water, with 
their large flat heads surrounded by the leaves of 
water-lilies and other aquatic plants : one perhaps 
every now and then will dart forwards with a roar, 
lashing at the same time violently with his tail, and 
leaving a long wake in his track. On the setting 
in of winter, these reptiles bury themselves in 
swamps and marshes under the mud, and as the 
cold increases sink into a lethargic slumber so pro- 
found that the severest wounds fail to rouse them 
to animation. They are never frozen, and the par- 
tial return of warmth for a few hours is sufficient to 
bring about a temporary revival. 

The flesh of this and the other species is musky, 
notwithstanding which it is eaten by the Indians. 

The true Crocodiles are tenants of Africa, India, 
and also of the hotter regions of America, and the 
islands. The muzzle is much more acute than in 
the alligators ; the teeth are unequal, and the front 
teeth of the lower jaw, at a certain age, pierce the 
upper jaw; the fourth on each side is the longest, 
and is not received into a hollow of the upper jaw 
when the mouth is shut, but a lateral notch makes 
room for it. The hind-limbs have a dentelated 
crest on their external border ; the three outer toes 
are entirely webbed. "Nothing," observe MM. 
Dumfril and Bibron, " belter distinguishes the cro- 
codiles from the alligators than the narrowness of the 
muzzle behind the nostrils ; a narrowness which 
is produced by the deep notch on each side of the 
upper mandible, serving for the passage of the fourth 
lower tooth." "The cranial holes are larger than 
in the caimans. The nasal aperture is oval, or sub- 
circular. There is a very small bony plate in the 
substance of the upper eyelid ." Fig. 2 126 represents 
comparative views of the Skull of the common 
Crocodile, and of the Pike-nosed Caiman ; a, the 



Skull of the Common Crocodile, seen from above ; 
b, the Skull of the Pike-nosed Caiman, in the same 
view ; c. the Skull of the Crocodile, in profile ; d, 
the Skull of the Caiman, in the same view. Fig. 
I 2127 represents the Cervical Plates of the Common 
Crocodile. 

2128, 2129, 2130.— Thk Common Crocodile 
{Crocodilut vulgaris). There is perhaps no genus 
of Reptiles, the species of which are so difficult to 
be distinguished from each other, as those of the 
present: we find, indeed, that M. Bibron distin- 
guishes four varieties of the common crocodile ; and 
others, described as distinct species, are to be re- 
garded as doubtful. If the four varieties, notwith- 
standing their differences, be identical, the range of 
the common crocodile is very extensive. It is found 
in the Nile, the Senegal, and other African rivers ; 
the Ganges, and the lagoons of various parts of India, 
and the Seychelles Islands. 

The crocodile, which is by most writers regarded 
as the leviathan of the book of Job, was by some of 
the Egyptians regarded as sacred, but not, as it 
would appear from the statement of Herodotus, by 
all. His words are, " Among some of the Egyptians 
the crocodile is sacred, while others pursue him as 
an enemy. The inhabitants of the Thebais and the 
shores of the Lake Moeris regard him with venera- 
tion. Each person has a tame crocodile ; he puts 
pendants of glass and gold in its ear-lids, and gives 
it a regular allowance of food daily. When it dies 
it is embalmed, and placed in the sacred repository. 
But the inhabitants of the territory of Elephantine 
eat the crocodile, not at all regarding it as sacred. 
This animal is not called in Egypt crocodile (kpok6- 
SeiKos), but champsa ; for the former appellation 
was originally applied to it by the lonians, on ac- 
count of its resemblance to a lizard so called, which 
they find in their hedges." 

With respect to the word champsa (x^mW. it 
differs but little from the modern appellation for 
the crocodile in Egypt. In Coptic, it is amsah, or 
hamsa, which, as we learn, with the feminine article 
prefixed, has made the Arabic word timsah, or 
temsah, now in common use on the banks of 
the Nile. According to Strabo, a sacred crocodile 
was in his time kept in a tank, in the city called 
Crocodinopolis, afterwards termed Arsinoii, and at- 
tended by priests. The animal was tame, and went 
under the name of Suclius, or Suchis (SoSxos or 
SoDxis), a word,* as it would appear, applicable 
only to this distinguished individual. The poor 
beast was fed most unnaturally. " Our host," says 
Strabo, " who was a person of importance, and our 
guide to all the sacred things, went with us to the 
tank, taking with him from table a small cake, some 
roasted meat, and a small cup of mulled wine. We 
found the crocodile lying on the margin. The 
priests immediately went up to him, and while some 
of them opened his mouth, another put in the cake, 
crammed down the flesh, and finished by pouring 
down the wine. The crocodile then jumped into 
the pond, and swam to the opposite side." Glad, no 
doubt, was the animal to escape its tormentors. 

As we have stated, the crocodile was not held sa- 
cred in all parts of Egypt, but appears to have been 
sometimes kept tame, as is attested by one of the 
marbles in the Townley Collection in the British 
Museum, which apparently represents an Egyptian 
tumbler, exercising his feats on the back of one of 
these animals. (See Fig. 2131.) 

"The Egyptian notions as to sacred things seem 
not a little strange and contradictory ; the crocodile 
was also one of the symbols of Typhon, the evil 
genius, and the murderer of Osiris. It was an 
Egyptian notion that Typhon assumed this form 
to avoid the vengeance of Horus, the son of Osiris. 
Between Harpocrates, an Egyptian deity not men- 
tioned by Herodotus (but known to the later Greeks 
by this corrupted name), and Horus, there were 
some points of resemblance, and hence the subjects 
of the bronzes (see Figs. 2132 and 2133) may refer 
to Horus trampling on the crocodile. "7— {' Egypt. 
Antiq ') 

We must not omit to notice that Herodotus, 
in his account of the crocodile, says, that as it so 
constantly frequents the water, its mouth becomes 
infected with bdel/ce (pitwai), which are by most 
scholars supposed to mean leeches ; and he adds, 
that a small bird, called the trochilus (rpiixiAot), 
relieves him of these pests, boldly entering within 
his jaws, opened to receive the western breeze, and 
picking them out, while the huge beast, pleased 
with the service rendered, offers no injury to its 
little benefactor. 

By M. Geoffrey St. Hilaire, these bdellae or suck- 
ing creatures were considered to be some species of 
gnat, and the trochilus one of the Plover tribe ; and 
we learn from M. Descourtils that a species of gnat 
infests the gums and palate of the caimans of 
America. 

• M. Champollion says ttie E^ptians gave the name of Souk to a 
deity represented as a man ^Yith a crocodile's bead. 



We learn from Pliny that the Romans first saw 
crocodiles in the aedileship of Scaurus, about twenty- 
eight years before the Christian era, and that he ex- 
hibited five. Augustus introduced thirty-six of 
them into the amphitheatre, where they were en- 
countered and killed by gladiators, as an amuse- 
ment to the spectators. 

Though the crocodile is no longer seen in the 
Delta, it is abundant in the Thebaid and the Upper 
Nile, and in the tributary branches throughout 
Nubia and Abyssinia. In Dongola, at the present 
day, it is killed for the sake of its flesh, which is 
regarded as a delicacy. Thevenot, who tasted 
crocodile's flesh in Egypt, found it good, though 
rather insipid. 

The mode in which this powerful and ferocious 
animal is captured in Angola is described as fol- 
lows by Dr. Kiippell, who often witnessed it:—" The 
most favourable season," he observes, " is either the 
winter, when the animal usually sleeps on sand- 
banks, luxuriating in the rays of the sun, or the 
spring, after the pairing time, when the female re- 
gularly watches the sand-islands where she has 
buried her eggs. The native finds out the place, 
and on the south side of it, that is to the leeward, he 
digs a hole in the sand, throwing up the earth to 
the side which he expects the animal to take. There 
he conceals himself; and the crocodile, should it fail 
to observe him, comes to the accustomed spot, and 
soon falls asleep. The huntsman then darts his 
harpoon, with all his force, at the animal, for in 
order that the stroke may be successful, the iron 
ought to penetrate to the depth of at least four 
inches, in order that the barb be fixed firmly in the 
flesh. The crocodile, on being wounded, rushes into 
the water, and the huntsman retreats to a canoe, with 
which a companion hastens to his assistance. A 
piece of wood, attached to the harpoon by a long 
cord, swims on the water, and shows the direction 
in which the crocodile is moving. The huntsmeni 
pulling at this rope, drag the beast to the surface of 
the water, where it is again pierced by a second 
harpoon. The skill of the harpooner consists in 
giving to the weapon sufficient impulse to pierce 
through the coat of mail which protects the croco- 
dile. 

"When the animal is struck, it by no means re- 
mains inactive ; on the contrary, it lashes violently 
with its tail, and endeavours to bite the rope 
asunder. To prevent this, the rope is made of about 
tliirty separate slender lines, not twisted together, 
but merely placed in juxtaposition, and bound 
round at intervals of every two feet. The thin lines 
get between the teeth, or become entangled about 
them. 

" It frequently happens that the harpoons, by the 
pulling of the men, break out of the animal's body, 
and it escapes. 

" If I had not seen the fact with my own eyes, I 
could hardly have believed that two men could 
drag out of the water a crocodile fourteen feet long, 
fasten his muzzle, tie his legs over his back, and 
finally despatch him, by plunging a sharp instrument 
into his neck, so as to divide the spinal chord. 

"The iron part of the harpoon which is used by 
the huntsmen is a span long, and formed toward 
the point like a penknife, being sharp on one edge ; 
beyond this edge there is a strong barb, while on 
the back of the blade a piece projects to which the 
rope is lastened. This iron head is affixed to a shaft 
of wood eicht feet in length. The flesh and fat of 
the crocodile are eaten by the Barabas or Berbe- 
rines, who consider them excellent; both, however, 
have an odour of musk so strong that I could 
never eat crocodile's flesh without sickness follow- 
ing. The musk-glands of the animal form a great 
part of the profit which results from this capture ; 
as the Berberines will give as much as two dollars 
for them, the unguent being used as a perfume for 
the hair. 

" In some of the rivers of Africa, the negroes are 
bol4 enough, and indeed skilful enough, to combat 
the crocodile in his own element. Armed onlv 
with a sharp dagger they dive beneath him, and 
plunge the weapon into his belly. It often happens, 
however, that the combat is fatal to the man, and 
frequently his only chance of escape is to force his 
dagger, or if this be lost, his thumbs, into the ani- 
mal's eyes, with all his might, so as to produce great 
pain and blindness." 

Herodotus explains the mode of crocodile-hunting 
in his time, which was managed by means of a hook, 
baited with the chine of a pig, while the attention 
of the monster was aroused by the cries of a living 
pig, which the fishers had with them on the shore". 
In anticipation of prey he dashed into the river, and 
meeting the baited hook instantly seized and 
swallowed it, and was then dragged ashore : the 
men then endeavoured to bhnd his eyes with mud, 
and when this was accomplished, his destruction 
was easy, but if not, so violent were his sfruirgles, 
and so dangerous was it to approach him, that it 
was not without difficulty that he was despatched. 



Chameleons.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



83 



Fish, floating carrion, pigs, dogs, and other ani- 
mals surprised on the banks of the river, are the 
food of the crocodile ; yet on land escape is by no 
means difficult, as the legs are ill-formed lor running, 
and the little false ribs, or appendages to the ver- 
tebrae of the neck, limiting the lateral motion of 
that part, render sudden turns a matter of difficulty. 
In the water, on the contrary, the animal is prompt 
and rapid ; lashing his tail from side to side, he 
cleaves the waters like an arrow, leaving a track 
behind him from the impetuosity of his progress. 
Sometimes it is said he will dart forward into the 
middle of the river, uttering a loud bellowing, his 
eyes glaring and his body swollen, while with his 
powerful tail he lashes the surrounding water, till it 
is worked into a loam. This exhibition of excite- 
ment ended, he darts off to his accustomed covert, 
and regains his concealment. 

The eggs of the crocodile are of an oblong shape, 
hard, and somewhat larger than those of a goose ; 
and the young, compared with their' gigantic pa- 
rents, are very small, but display, even at that early 
period their innate ferocity. Numbers, both of 
young and eggs, are destroyed by beasts and birds 
of prey. The Ichneumon (described in vol. i., p. 
214, Fig. 951) has been from an ancient date cele- 
brated for the havoc it makes among them. 

Though none of the crocodile tribe are natives of 
Europe, Malte Brun, in his ' Syst. Geol.,' vol. viii., 
p. 193, states that a crocodile is still preserved at 
Lyons, which was taken about two centuries ago in 
the Rhone, but no particulars are given. We can 
only account for the circumstance by supposing the 
animal to have wandered along the coasts of the 
Mediterranean from the Delta of the Nile, or per- 
haps from some of the rivers of North-western Africa, 
and have made its way into the Mediterranean. 

2134.— The Gavial 
(Gavialis Gangeticus). Head of Gavial of the 
Ganges. Gangetic Crocodile. Crocodilus tenuiros- 
tris, Daudin ; Or. longirostris, Schn. 

The Gavial, of which only one species is known, 
is subject to considerable variations in its progress 
from youth to maturity. It is characterized by the 
jaws being very much elongated and narrow, and 
somewhat depressed beak, armed with formidable 
teeth to the number of one hundred and eighteen or 
one hundred and twenty. The first and fourth tooth 
on each side of the lower jaw are the longest, and 
are received not into cavities of the upper jaw, but 
into conspicuous notches. This long and formid- 
able beak sinks suddenly from the forehead, and is 
expanded at its extremity, where the valvular nos- 
tril form a large oval cartilaginous mass. The eye- 
lid contains in its substance the rudiment of a 
bony plate. 

At Fig. 2134 are represented, a, the Skull of the 
Great Gavial, seen from above ; b, the lower jaw ; 
c, the profile of the Skull ; d, an outline of the Head 
of the Gavial, covered with the integuments. There 
are musk glands under the lower jaw. The hind 
feet of the Gavial closely resemble those of the true 
crocodiles, but the cervical plates are arranged more 
nearly like those of the caiman ; forming a long 
band, commencing on the nape of the neck, and 
prolonging themselves to the dorsal plates. There 
IS, however, some diversity, as seen at Fig. 2135, 
representing the cervical plates of two individuals, 
from Cuvier. The scales of the flanks are oval and 
flat, the keels of the plates, forming the dorsal 
cuirass, are low, but the crest of the tail is much 
elevated. 

The Gavial is a native of the Ganges, and is the 
largest of the living Sauria, often exceeding twenty- 
five feet in length ; it is one of the scourges of the 
river, and is very formidable from its strength and 
ferocity. The dying Hindoo exposed upon the 
bank, or the dead body consigned to the sacred 
waters, often becomes the prey of this dreaded mon- 
ster. 

Several species of fossil crocodile have been dis- 
covered ; they belong to a distinct genera, and it is 
remarkable that those examples alone, which have 
elongated beaks, approximating to the modern 
Gavial, occur in formations anterior to and including 
the chalk, whilst those with a short broad snout, 
like that of the caiman, appear for the first time in 
tertiary strata, containing in abundance the remains 
of Mammalia. " The discovery of crocodilean 
forms," says Dr. Buckland, " so nearly allied to the 
living Gavial, in the same early strata that contain 
the first traces of the Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosau- 
rus, is a fact which seems wholly at variance with 
every theory that would derive the race of crocodiles 
from Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri, by any process of 
gradual transmutation or development. The Hrst 
appearance of all these three families of reptiles, 
seems to have been nearly simultaneous ; and they 
all continued to exist together until the termination 
of the secondary formations, when the Ichthyo- 
sauri and Plesiosauri became extinct, and forms of 
crocodiles approaching the cavman and alligator 
Vol. II. 



were for the first time introduced." (' Bridgewater 
Treatise,' vol. i., p. 254.) 

Of the long-beaked fossil forms, that which ap- 
proaches the nearest to the living Gavial is the Ste- 
neosaurus, of which Fig. 2136 represents the muzzle, 
from a specimen procured at Havre ; according to 
Dr. Buckland, the relics of the same species are 
met with in the Kimmeridge clay of Shotover Hill, 
near Oxford. In another fossil genus, viz., Teleo- 
saurus, the beak is also narrow and elongated, but 
the nasal orifice, instead of opening upwards, ter- 
minates the anterior apex of the upper jaw, as seen 
at Fig. 2137. Referring to Fig. 2138, a represents 
the head of Teleosaurus Chapmanni, seen from 
above ; h, the head of another individual of the same 
species, seen from below, showing the lower jaw ; c, 
an inside view of the extremity of the lower jaw. 
This species is found in the lias, in the neighbour- 
hood of Whitby, and in the great oolite of Oxon. 

In Crocodilus Spenceri (Fig. 2139), the skull ap- 
proaches closely to that of the caimans, and is broad 
with a short and heavy snout. It is found in the 
London clay of the Isle of Sheppey. 
• We shall here leave the crocodiles, the family 
Crccodilidae of some authors, the order Emydosauri 
of De Blainville, Mr. Gray, and others, and advance 
to the true Sauria, which appear to emerge gra- 
dually through a series of forms to the Ophidia 
(or Snakes), or at least to approximate towards 
them. Of the various systematic arrangements of 
the true Sauria, none appear to us so clear and 
simple as the one given by that eminent naturalist 
Mr. Gray, in the ' Synopsis of the Contents of the 
British Museum' (1840). But at the same time wc 
must not omit an express notice of the admirable 
' Erp6tologie G6n6rale,' of MM. Dum6ril and 
Bibron, one of the standard works on reptiles of 
the present day, to which we shall often have 
occasion to refer. 

Before we enter upon our subject, however, it may 
be as well to allude to an old superstition, which, 
under various phases, has passed from the pages of 
Pliny, Dioscorides, Solinus, .S)lian. and others, to 
those of the naturalists of the last century. Who 
has not heard of the basilisk or cockatrice, the king 
of serpents, with a regal crown upon its head, 
blighting the herbage with its breath, and striking 
dead with a glance of its eye ? 

It would appear that several sorts of these crea- 
tures, "bodied forth" by imagination, were sup- 
posed to exist, all " monstra horrenda ;" and one, 
the concentration of evil, was said to be produced 
from the eggs of extremely old cocks, hatched under 
toads and serpents. This parentage, indeed, is 
attributed by some to the whole brood. Pliny, after 
stating that this creature kills with a glance of the 
eye, adds that "the Cyreriaic Province produces 
him, of the size of not more than twelve fingers, 
and remarkable for a white spot like a diadem on 
his head. He drives away all serpents by hissing ; 
nor does he impel his body like the rest by a mul- 
tiplied flexion, but advances lofty and elevated. 
He kills the shrubs not only by contact, but by 
breathing on them, scorches up the green herbage, 
and splits the rocks, such power of evil is there in 
him. It was formerly believed that if killed by a 
spear from on horseback, the virulence of the poi- 
son, conducted through the weapon, destroyed not 
only the rider but the horse also." 

Johnston, who enters very gravely into all the evil 
qualities of this basilisk, doubts the possibility of its 
asserted mode of production, but he and others of 
our earlier writers believed in its existence. " Yet 
was the basilisk mortal, and had foes proof against 
its fatal glance and withering breath. Of these one 
was the weasel ; this animal feared not the en- 
counter, and when bitten or hurt in the combat, it 
would retire, and eat some rue, the only herb which 
the monster's breath could not dry up, and again 
return to the charge, and never cease the conflict 
till it had stretched its enemy dead." Another 
dreaded animal was a cock, for though sprung from 
the egg of such a bird, mirabile dictu,no sooner did 
it hear " the cock's shrill clarion," than it instantly 
expired. We present our readers with two represen- 
tations of basilisks or cockatrices, from Aldrovandus, 
one of which he owes to Grevinus. Fig. 2140, 
Basiliscus in SoUtudine Africae vivens ; the basilisk 
inhabiting the deserts of Africa. Fig. 2141, Basilis- 
cus, sive Regulus, Grevini. The basilisk, or kinglet, 
of Grevinus. 

We have said enough about a fable utterly un- 
worthy of our serious notice. The title basilisk, or 
basiliscus, is applied by modern naturalists to a 
genus peculiar to South America. 

Family CHAM/ELEONID.E (CHAMELEONS). 
These singular reptiles, which are distributed to 
Africa, India and its islands, the Seychelles Islands, 
Bourbon, and Mauritius, Australia, &c., but not 
America, as far as is at present ascertained, may be 
distinguished by the deep compressed form of the 
body, surmounted by an acute dorsal ridge ; by the 



toes, which are united together as far as the latt 
joint, and armed with sharp claws, being disposed 
in two sets, antagonizing with each other, three 
being placed anteriorly, two posteriorly, and form- 
ing, like the foot of the parrot, efficient graspers ; by 
the surface of the skin being covered, not by scales, 
but by minute horny granules ; and by the pre- 
hensile power of the tapering tail. The head, we 
may add, is large, and from the shortness of the 
neck, seems as if set upon the shoulders ; it is some- 
what wedge-shaped in figure, being broad across 
the occiput, which is surmounted with an elevated 
crest or casque, in some species g^reatly developed ; 
an abrupt ridge overtops both eyes, extending 
thence to the muzzle, where each ridge meets. The 
mouth is very wide, and the jaws are armed with small 
trilobed teeth. The tongue is a most extrordinary 
organ, and is the instrument by means of which the 
animal takes its insect prey. It consists of a hollow 
tube, with a fleshy tuberculated " apex, and is 
capable of being darted out instantaneously to a 
great distance, and as instantaneously retracted. 
When retracted it folds up within itself, somewhat 
after the manner of a pocket telescope ; it is lubri- 
cated by a glutinous saliva, and when fully ex- 
tended is vermiform in appearance. So rapidly does 
the animal launch this instrument at a fly, or other 
insect, or at a drop of water on a leaf or twig, and 
so rapidly is it withdrawn, that the eye can but just 
follow the movement. 

The eyes of the chameleon have a singular and odd 
expression. They appear mere points : the whole of 
the anterior portion of the ball, excepting the pupil, 
being covered with skin, forming a single circular 
eyelid. The balls thus covered with skin, to which 
they are attached, are set each in a large orbit, 
with a deep furrow around them, and roll about, 
perfectly independent of each other ; so that the 
axis of one eye may be directed backwards, for- 
wards, upwards, or downwards, and that of the other 
in a contrary direction, the animal making two dis- 
tinct surveys at the same moment, thus producing a 
grotesque effect. 

We have heard of the chameleon's food being the 
air ; it lives, however, on more substantial diet ; but 
this story may have arisen from the following cir- 
cumstance : — the lungs are exceedingly voluminous, 
and these the creature is able to flll with air, so as 
to puff itself up, and in this state it often remains 
for hours without any movement of respiration being 
perceptible ; on exhausting the lungs of the air, the 
sides of the body fall in, and the frame has a meagre 
appearance till the lungs are again inflated, when it 
becomes suddenly bloated as before. Certain con- 
tinuations of these lungs penetrate the numerous 
cellules into which the abdominal cavity is regularly 
divided, while others penetrate under the skin be- 
tween the muscles, to which the former adheres only 
by lax membranes, especially on the spine, down the 
centre of the under parts, and on the limbs and tail. 
It may be asked, — Are not the changes in the 
colour of the skin, for which the chameleon has been 
long celebrated, dependent in some degree on the 
respiration and differences of condition in the 
lungs ? Barrow indeed declares, that previously to 
the chameleon's changing colour, it makes a long 
inspiration, swelling out twice its usual size, and 
that as the inflation subsides the change of colour 
gradually takes place, the only permanent marks 
being two small dark lines passing along the sides. 
From this account some have ascribed the transi- 
tions of tint to the influence of oxygen on the fluids 
and tissues of the body ; and there is much appear- 
ance of probability in the theory. 

Dr. Weissenborn attributes these changes to the 
varied influence of light on the nervous system. 

The following is M. Milne Edwards's theory, which 
after all does not leave the subject completely ex- 
plained. See ' Ann. des Sciences Nat.,' Jan., 1834. 
The results of his observations are : — 

1. "That the change in the colour of chameleons 
does not depend essentially either on the more or 
less considerable swelling of their bodies, or the 
changes which might hence result to the condition 
of their blood or circulation ; nor does it depend on 
the greater or less distance which may exist between 
the several cutaneous tubercles ; although it is not 
to be denied that these circumstances probably 
exercise some influence upon the phenomenon. 

2. " That there exist in the skin of these animals 
two layers of membraneous pigment, placed the one 
above the other, but disposed in such a way as to 
appear simultaneously under the cuticle, and some- 
times in such a manner that the one fnay hide the 
other. 

3. " That everything remarkable in the changes of 
colour which manifest themselves in the chameleon 
may be explained by the appearance of the pigment 
of the deeper layer to an extent more or less consi- 
derable, in the midst of the pigment of the super- 
ficial layer ; or from its disappearance beneath this 
layer. 

4. "That these displacements of the deeper pig- 

M2 




jt»,_Atneil PUtnof Oirii'.s. 




»IS7. 



SMi.— ^Genunon Ghunelton. 



2143.— Ilead and Tongue of Cbamcleon. 





2138.— Headi of Teleosnirns. Fossil. 






2145.— Skulls of Fork-nosea Chameleon. 




2U1.— BuiUdi of Ominus. 




2140.— BarilUk (torn Aldrorandoj. 




2134.— Head of OOTial. 




.—Maille of SteneosannB. TuaM. 




2139.— SkoU of Ciocodnc. FoeU. 



2142.— Skeleton of Chameleon. 



81 




ElJl.— K^vatian Gocko. 



2 2,a 



^^^ Hfc 




5, a 



4, a 




2KT.— Feet of Geckis. 










a, a 

/"A 






2 148.— Feet of Geckos. 




2ue,— Skull of Gecko. 





2152.— .MUius'a Gecko. 




2150.— Seychelles Gecko. 




SU3.— 13>iiaed Gecko. 



8149.— Smooth-headed Gecko. 



85 



86 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Geckos. 



ment. do in reality occur ; and it is a probable con- 
sequence that the chameleon's colour changes dur- 
ing life, and may continue to change even after 
death 

5. " That there exists a close analogy between the 
mechanism by the help of which the changes of 
colour appear to take place in these reptiles, and 
that which determines the successive appearance 
and disappearance of coloured spots in the mantles 
of several of the cephalopods." 

How the mechanical admixture of two pigments 
can produce the various tints, exhibited at different 
times by the skin of the chameleon, as primary 
yellow and red, yellowish grey, brown and violet, or 
dull inky blue, is not very clear. Must not the 
pigments themselves change colour ? We think 
so. 

The skeleton is remarkable for the strong spinous 
processes of the vertebral column ; the number 
of the cervical vertebrse is only five (the majority 
of Sauna having eight) ; it is represented at Fig. 
2142. 

Fig. 2143 represents the Head and Tongue of the 
Chameleon in the act of taking prey. 

As all its form indicates, the chameleon is arboreal 
in its habits ; it traverses the twigs and branches in 
a slow and cautious manner, clinging by the tail, 
and grasping with its feet ; on the ground its 
motions are awkward and irresolute, and it gropes 
about, using its limbs in succession rather than 
in pairs. 

We have had abundant opportunities of observing 
the chameleon in captivity, and cannot say that it 
is very attractive. It is slow and inanimate, ever 
seeking the warmth of the sun, in the rays of which 
It wili bask for hours together, changing its tints as 
evening draws on, and assuming with darkness a 
dusky hue. In a hothouse, it will live among the 
plants, as if in a state of perfect liberty, but never 
displays any intelligence or activity. 

The female digs an excavation in the ground for 
the reception of her eggs, and covers them with 
earth and dried herbage. The eggs are numerous, 
and oval, and covered with a tough semicalcareous 
sort of parchment. 

2144. — The Common Chameleon 

(Chamceleon vulgaris). This species is a native of 
Egypt, and the northern line of Africa, and also the 
southern districts of Spain and Sicily. It was well 
known to the ancients, and is the ;^u/utixiut of 
Aristotle. 

A distinct variety, or nearly allied species, in- 
Iiabits India. 

Dr. Weissenborn, who had a chameleon for some 
months in his possession, remarks, that of all the cir- 
cumstances connected with the variations of its 
colour, none were more surprising than the differ- 
ence between the tint of one side of the body and 
that of the other at the same time ; and he attributes 
this to separate galvanic or nervous currents, di- 
rected independently of each other to the two sides 
of the body. 

His words are : " The remote cause of the differ- 
ence of colour in the two lateral halves of the body 
may be distinctly referred to the manner in which 
the light acts upon the animal. The statement of 
Murray, that the side turned towards the light is 
always of a darker colour, is perfectly true ; this 
rule holds good with reference to the direct and 
diffused light of the sun and moon as to artificial 
light. Even when the animal was moving in the 
walks of my garden, and happened to come near 
enough to the border to be shaded by the box 
edging, that side so shaded would instantly become 
less darkly coloured than the other. Now, as the 
light in these cases seldom illumines exactly one 
half of the animal in a more powerful manner than 
the other, and as the middle line is constantly the 
line of demarcation between the two different shades 
of colour, we must evidently refer the different 
effects to two different centres, from which the 
nervous currents can only radiate, under such cir- 
cumstances, towards the organs respectively situated 
on each side of the mesial line. Over these centres, 
without doubt, the organ of vision immediately pre- 
sides : and indeed we ought not to wonder that the 
action of light has such powerful effects on the 
highly irritable organization of the chameleon, con- 
aidering that the eye is most highly developed. 
The lungs are but secondarily affected, but they 
are likewise more strongly excited on the darker side, 
which is constantly more convex than the other. 

" Many other circumstances may be brought for- 
ward in favour of the opinion that the nervous 
currents in one half of the chameleon are going on 
independently of those in the other ; and that the 
animal has two lateral centres of perception, sen- 
sation, and motion, besides the common one in 
which must reside the faculty of concentration. 
Notwithstanding the strictly symmetrical structure 
of the chameleon, as to its two halves, the eyes 
move independently of each other, and convey dif- 



ferent impressions to their different centres of per- 
ception : the consequence is, that when the animal 
is agitated, its movements appear like those of two 
animals glued together. Eacn half wishes to move 
its own way, and there is no concordance of action. 
The chameleon, therefore, is not able to swim like 
other animals : it is so frightened if put into water, 
the faculty of concentration is lost, and it tumbles 
about as if in a state of intoxication. On the other 
hand, when the creature is undisturbed, the eye 
which receives the strongest impression propagates 
it to the common centre, and prevails upon the 
other eye to follow that impression and direct itself 
to the same object. The chameleon moreover may 
be asleep on one side and awake on the other. 
When cautiously approaching my specimen at 
night, with a candle, so as not to awaken the whole 
animal by the shaking of the room, the eye turned 
towards the flame would open and begin to move, 
and the corresponding .side to change colour, 
whereas the other side would remain for several 
seconds longer in its torpid and changeable state 
with its eye shut." (See ' Magazine of Natural 
History,' October, 1838, p. 632.) 

These views of Dr. Weissenborn are worth con- 
sideration; fuller details will be found in the work 
referred to. 

Fig. 2145 represents the Skull, in two views, of 
the Fork-nosed Chameleon (Chamseleon bifidus). A 
native of the continent of India, the Moluccas, 
Bourbon, and also of Australia. The top of the 
head is flat, the muzzle is prolonged into two 
distinct branches, which are compressed and den- 
telated along the upper and under margins. In its 
general manners this strange species agrees with 
the rest of its congeners, and we cannot imagine 
the end to be answered by the singular conforma- 
tion of the snout. 

Family GECKOTIDiE (GECKOS). 

Like the Chameleons, the Geckos form a distinct 
and very natural family. They are reptiles of small 
size, but of repulsive aspect and of nocturnal habits ; 
from the structure of the toes they are capable of 
running along the smoothest surfaces, up walls, and 
even, like a fly, of traversing ceilings; they lurk in 
the chinks and fissures of walls and trees, in holes 
and crannies, under the broad leaves of trees, and 
in some countries infest the habitations of man. 
They are universally distributed through every 
quarter of the globe, but are most numerous in the 
warmer climates of Asia. Two species are common 
in Southern Europe, and occur also in Northern 
Africa. The species are numerous. 

We have said that the aspect of these lizards is 
uncouth. The head is large and flat, the neck 
short, the body thick and depressed, without any 
dorsal ridge ; the limbs are short and stout, the toes 
are of almost equal length, flattened, and expanded 
beneath, and transversely laminated, or furnished 
with imbricated suckers, by means of which they 
adhere firmly in any position; and the claws are 
sharp, hooked, and retractile, like those of a cat. 
The eyes are large, full, and bright, generally with 
a narrow linear festooned pupil, which expands at 
night. The eyelids are little developed, while the 
eyes have a staring glance. The orifices of the 
ears are placed on the sides of the head, the tym- 
panic membrane being considerably below the sur- 
face, and the orifice bordered by two folds of skin. 
The tongue is large and fleshy, but slightly pro- 
tractile, and its free extremity is either notched or 
rounded. The teeth are small, equal, compressed, 
with cutting edges, and implanted in the internal 
aspect of the jaws. There are no palatal teeth ; the 
' mouth is wide. The skin is granulated, and often 
beset with scattered tuberculous scales ; and the 
limbs, the sides of the body, and tail, are sometimes 
fringed with dentelated or vandyked membranes. 
In the males generally, and often in the females, 
there is a line of pores (femoral pores) on the in- 
side of each thigh, and across the lower part of the 
abdomen. The tail is variable in length, but never 
exceeds that of the body. 

The tints of these reptiles are mostly blended 
greys and browns ; but it would appear that, as in 
the chameleons, they are capable, to a certain ex- 
tent, of changing their hues, transient shades of 
blue, red, and yellow appearing and disappearing 
at the creature's will ; and, according to Wagler, 
certain Indian species become luminous or phos- 
phorescent during the night. From the flatness 
and flexibility of the body, these reptiles are ca- 
pable of insinuating themselves into the smallest 
crevices, and their sombre hues blending into and 
harmonizing with the shadowy obscurity in which 
they are, so to speak, enveloped during their hours 
of retirement, tend to their concealment. They 
off'er nothing to attract the eye, no movement, no 
brilliant colour. 

At night they come forth all alive in quest of in- 
sect prey, ever and anon uttering their clucking cry, 
whence the imitative name Gecko, and also Tociaie 



and Geitje. Their bright eyes glare ; they traverse 
craggy rocks, old walls, and the rough trunks of trees 
exploring every crevice: they lurk in ambush, and, 
dart from their concealment upon their victim ; 
they appear and vanish as if by magic ; we see them 
and the next moment they are gone. Confident in 
their powers, they boldly await approach, their eyes 
gleam, and their fixed gaze seems to bid defiance ; 
you raise your hand to strike or seize them ; where 
are they ? not a rustle was heard, not the slightest 
noise, and yet they have disappeared. Thus en- 
dowed, and of forbidding aspect, we can scarcely 
wonder at the aversion entertained towards these 
reptiles in the countries they tenant. They are re- 
garded as being extremely venomous, and it is be- 
lieved that even their touch occasions malignant 
disorders of the skin, while their saliva is most 
dreadfully noxious. "They are reported to ])oison 
viands of any kind over which they may crawl , render- 
ing such highly deleterious. It often happens that in 
these popular errors there is some degree of' truth. 
The toad, for example, is said to be venomous, and 
there is some degree of truth in the assertion. The 
cutaneous glands pour forth an irritating acrid se- 
cretion, and several times have we seen a dog seize 
one of these creatures, but instantly drop it, and 
retreat shaking his head, while the foam filled his 
mouth and ran down the jaws, his distress lasting 
for hair an hour; a favourite spaniel of ours was 
once served this trick, but nothing would induce 
him afterwards to approach such " varmint," though 
he would kill a rat in an instant. 

So it is with these calumniated geckos ; their 
sharp clinging claws, and the suction of their toe- 
pads, acting like little air-pumps, will really produce 
redness on a delicate skin, and it is not unlikely that 
an irritating secretion may contribute to this, besides 
combining with the slight puncture of the claws 
and the suction of the pads to produce marks for 
some time permanent : this is the key-note to the 
strain of the horrible which runs current. 

Like many other lizards, our own pretty little 
common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) for instance, the 
geckos have the singular power of reproducing 
their tail when lost by accident. The tail, indeed, 
is very brittle, and when broken off it is soon re- 
newed, but a swelling marks the line where the re- 
produced member commences ; many such examples 
in the different species of gecko have come under 
our personal notice. 

The Gecko, or rather one species, was well known 
to the ancients, and it is generally admitted that it 
was the lizard described by Aristotle under the 
name of Ascalabus or Ascalabotes (a«-«i<xa/3»,-, sive 
MxaXa^Tue), and by Pliny under that of Stellio. 
This opinion was supported by the learned Gesner, 
who has shown that under the names of Ascalabotes 
and Galeotes, both Aristotle and Theophrastus spoke 
of the little lizards, which in his time the Italians 
designated by the name of Tarentola, and which 
are characterized by a short squat body, climbing 
the walls of buildings and the sides of rooms in 
quest of spiders, on which they feed. Schneider, 
who has published an express dissertation on the 
subject, has satisfactorily demonstrated the identity 
of the Stellio of Pliny with the Wall Gecko of South- 
em Europe and Northern Africa (Platydactylus 
muralis, Bibr. ; Lacertus facetanus, Aldrovand). 

Fig. 2146 represents the Skull of the Gecko : a, 
the cranium ; b, the lower jaw ; c, a tooth enlarged. 

The Geckos are divided into various genera ac- 
cording to the structure of the feet, of which some 
of the principal forms are displayed at Figs. 2147 
and 2148. 

In these representations the object marked with 
the numeral only displays the foot, those with the 
letter a added exhibit the structure of the lower 
part of the toe. Fig. 2147 : 2, Piatydactylus cepe- 
dianus ; 3, Platydactylus yEgyptiacus ; 4, Platydac- 
tylus guttatus (Gecko verus. Common Gecko of 
Gray) ; 5, Platydactylus homalocephalus (Ptycho- 
zoon of Kuhl, Pteropleura of Gray) : 6, Platydac- 
tylus Leachianus (Ascalabotes Leachianus, Griff. 
An. Kingd.) ; 7. Hemidactylus oualensis (Peropus, 
Weigmann) ; 8, Hemidactylus triedrus. 

Fig. 2148 ; 2, Thecadactylus the conyx ; 3, Ptyo- 
dactylus Hasselquistii (P. guttatus, Rupp'ell); 4, Ptyo- 
dactylus fimbriatus; 5, Phyllodactilus porphyreus; 
6, Gymnodactylus scaber (Stenodactylus, Riippell ; 
Cyrtodactylus, Gray) ; 7, Gymnodactylus pulchellus 
7 b, the claw of the latter in profile. 

2149. — The Smooth-headed Gecko 

(^PkUydactyhis homalocephalus). This singular 
reptile is a native of Java, and is remarkable for 
a free membrane which borders the sides of the 
head, the sides of the limbs, body and tail, and 
which is deeply vandyked or indented on the 
latter. The general colour above is brown, with a 
yellower tint down the back, which is divided at equal 
distances by black wavy lines, while a zigzag line 
encircles the top of the head ; the membranes and 
under parts are whitish. Of its habits nothing is 



Iguanas.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



87 



known. The femoral pores of the male of this 
species are exhibited at a. 

2150. — Thb Seychelles Gecko 

{Platydactylus Seychellensis). As its name im- 
plies, this reptile is a native of the Seychelles 
Islands, and is a rare species in museums. It is re- 
markable for the thickness of the limbs and the 
magnitude of the eyes. The suckers of the toes 
are much expanded, and transversely lamellate. 
Its general colour is yellovf, with a series of chest- 
nut coloured spots on each side of the back, which 
sometimes run into each other. Of its habits no 
details have been received. 

2151. — The Egtptiax Gecko 

{Platydactylus jEgyptiacus). This species, which 
is closely allied to the common wall gecko of 
Southern Europe and Northern Africa, but differs 
in many minor points, and particularly in having 
the tubercles with which the skin of the upper sur- 
face is studded, at great distances from each other, 
and without any ridge. It appears to be coniined 
to Esvpt, inhabiting the fissures and holes of ruined 
buildings, and often intruding itself into the rooms 
of inhabited houses, coming from its lurking-place 
at night, and traversing the walls and floors in quest 
of flies and spiders. 

2152. — Minus's Gecko 
{Gymnodactyltis Miliusii). This species is a native 
of New Holland ; but we have no definite account 
of its manners : its general colour above is chestnut, 
with white transverse streaks ; the skin is beset with 
conical tubercles. Femoral pores wanting. 

2153. — The Banded Gecko 
{Diplodactylus vittatus, Gray). Phyllodactylus vit- 
tatus, Bibron. 

This reptile is a native of New Holland, and was 
first described by Mr. Gray in the 'Proceeds. Zool. 
Soc' 18.32, p. 40. The length of the head and body 
is two inches, that of the tail one and a quarter 
inches. On each side of the body there are two 
rows of rather distant small spots, which become 
larger on the upper surface of the tail, and scattered 
on the limbs. General colour brown, with a broad 
longitudinal fillet of a deeper tint, sides tile-red ; 
limbs and tail margined with rows of yellow spots. 

Family IGUANID^ (IGUANAS). 

The present family is very extensive, containing 
upwards of forty-six genera, and one hundred and 
fifty species. 

The body is covered with scales, or homy plates, 
or tubercles, often ridged or spinous, but never 
osseous. As a general rule there is a horny crest or 
ridge extending along the middle line of the back 
and tail ; the abdominal plates are large and square. 
The tongue is thick, spongy, velvety, on its surface, 
free at its tip. The eyes are defended with movable 
eyelids. The toes are free, distinct, and armed with 
nails. The auditory orifice is generally apparent, 
and often encircled by pointed scales. 

The Iguanidae are divided into two sul)-families 
by MM.^Dumeril and Bibron; termed Pleurodonta 
(»x../», aside, and iicU, «3».t«, a tooth), and acro- 
donta (ix.«, the ridge or summit). The Pleuro- 
dontous Iguanidoe are, with the exception of one 
genus (Brachylophus, an Indian group), all restricted 
to .'Vmerica, and are characterized by the teeth not 
being implanted in the ridge of the jaw, but in a 
furrow along the side of the jaw, to which they ad- 
here by one side of the bony substance of the root 
without being rooted into the jaw itself. 

The Acrodontous Iguanidse are natives of Asia, 
Southern Europe, Africa, and Australia; and are 
distinguished by the teeth being seated on the ridge 
of the jaws, to which they are soldered, and of which 
thev appear to be a continuation. „ _, , ., 

these peculiarities of structure, says M. Dum<inl, 
" present a remarkable concordance with the geogra- 
phical distribution of the groups ; yet it must be 
acknowledged that the disposition of the teeth is not 
to be easily ascertained all at once, for it is almost 
impossible to open the jaws of the animals while 
alive, and almost equally so when preserved in 
spirits after death. Besides, in order to a-scertain 
the manner in which the teeth are fixed, it is often 
necessary to cut away a portion of the gum, in order 
to lay bare the furrow, where it exists, or to become 
assured of its absence." 

A few of the Pleurodontous Iguanid* will first en- 
gage our notice ; of these we shall first advert to 
the true Iguanas, or Guanas. 

The restricted genus Iguana contains but three 
distinct species, which attain to considerable dimen- 
sions, and have a fierce and strange aspect, though 
their flesh is esteemed a delicacy. 

These reptiles are characterized by a cutaneous ex- 
pansion like a pendent dewlap, or flaccid pouch, 
under the lower jaw and throat, which is capable of 
being inflated, and there are cuticular folds on the 



lateral regions of the neck and throat ; the head is 
stout at the base, moderately long, and of a some- 
what pyramidal shape ; covered with plates forming 
a sort of tesselated pavement. The scales of the 
body are small, almost lozenge-shaped, slightly 
keeled, and but httle imbricated. A serrated dorsal 
crest, consistingof elevated, compressed, and pointed 
scales, runs along the ridge of the back, and also of 
the tail to its tip. The tail is of great length, and 
very flexible : it is laterally compressed. The orifice 
of the ear is covered by a large tympanic membrane, 
and generally several large scales are about the 
angle of the lower jaw. The limbs are long, the 
toes are unequal, rough with elevated points on the 
under surface, and armed with acute claws. A 
range of tuberculous pores runs down the outside of 
each thigh. Fig. 2154, a, b, well displays the general 
characters of the head and limbs of the Iguana, as 
seen in the Iguana tuberculata. 

The teeth vary according to the ages of indi- 
viduals. They are not lodged in distinct sockets, 
but are fixed along the internal face of the dental 
bone in a sort of furrow, and adhere by one side of 
the bony substance of the root; the exposed part of 
each tooth is somewhat leaf-shaped, with the edges 
finely dentelated. Fig. 2155 represents the tooth of 
the Iguana (lower jaw). Besides these teeth, there 
is a small row along each .side of the vault of the 
palate. 

The iguanas are arboreal in their habits, and feed 
principally on vegetable aliment, perhaps indeed 
exclusively, for M. Bibron observes that in the sto- 
machs of the numerous specimens examined by 
himself he found nothing but leaves and flowers. 

Mr. Broderip saw a living iguana about two feet 
long, in a hothouse at Mr. Miller's nursery gardens 
near Bristol : it had refused to eat insects and all 
other kinds of animal food ; but on one occasion, hap- 
pening to come near some kidney-bean plants that 
were in the house for forcing, it began to eat their 
leaves, and was from that time regularly supplied 
with that nourishment. On the contrary. Dr. Buck- 
land, who alludes to this fact, states that in 1828, 
Captain Belcher found in the Island of Isabella 
swarms of iguanas that appeared to be omnivorous, 
feeding voraciously on eggs, on the intestines of 
fowls, and on insects. 

These animals haunt the borders of water, into 
which they often plunge, swimming with great ce- 
lerity; they place the fore-limbs along each side, 
throw back the hind-limbs, and vigorously lash the 
water from side to side with the tail, and dart rapidly 
forwards. 

We have had many opportunities of seeing the 
guanas in captivity, and have observed that though 
they become tolerably tame, they still preserve a 
considerable degree of fierceness ; on one occasion 
we approached a very large specimen, at large in a 
' room, which immediately made several determined 
snaps at us, though it permitted its owner to lift it 
up, and carry it about, without demonstrating any 
signs of anger. The male iguana, during the pair- 
ing season, is very savage, and jealously watches 
over his mate, attacking the intruder with ferocity ; 
his eyes glaring, his dewlap inflated, and his whole 
appearance indicating the utmost fury. 

The female visits the borders of rivers and sa- 
vannahs, and also the shore of the sea, in order to 
deposit her eggs, which she buries in the sand. Both 
these and the flesh of the animals are in great re- 
quest, so that in some of the islands where they 
were once abundant, they have become exceedingly 
scarce. They are generally taken by means of a 
noose thrown over their heads, while resting on a 
branch, from which they are forcibly pulled ; and 
this is the more easy, as they seldom retreat when 
discovered, but glare on their assailants, inflate their 
throat, and assume as threatening an aspect as pos- 
sible They are also taken in traps and nets, and 
sometimes are hunted by dogs. They are very te- 
nacious of life ; and as they struggle violently, snap- 
ping at every person, they are generally despatched 
at once by means of a sharp instrument plunged 
into the brain. 

2156.— The Commok Iguana 
(Iguana tuberculata). Iguana delicatissima, Dau- 

fhis species is a native of Brazil, Cayenne, the 
Antilles, and the Bahamas, &c., and attains to a con- 
siderable size, measuring in total length sometimes 
six feet We have seen many specimens upwards of 
four, biit it must be remembered that the tail sur- 
passes the body. Its flesh is accounted a great lux- 
ury being white and delicate, but it does not agree 
with some constitutions. In some of the Bahama 
islands these iguanas or guanas are still common, but 
much more so formerly, the race having been greatly 
thinned. Catesby, in his ' Natural History ot Caro- 
lina' ( 1743), informs us that it is an article ot trattic in 
the Bahamas, being carried alive from place to place, 
till required for the tables of the wealthy. Ihese 
reptiles, he says, "nestle in hollow trees ; their eggs 



have not a hard shell like those of alligators, but * 
skin only like those of a turtle, and are esteemed 
good food. They lay a great number of eggs at a 
time in the earth, which are hatched by the sun's 
heat. The guanas furnish a great part of the sub- 
sistence of the inhabitants of the Bahama islands ; 
for which purpose they visit many of the remote 
kayes and islands in their sloops, to catch them, 
which they do by dogs trained up for that purpose, 
and which are so dexterous as not often to kill 
them. If they do so however the guanas serve only 
for present use ; if otherwise, they sew up their 
mouths to prevent their biting, and put them into 
the hold of their sloop, until they have obtained a 
sufficient number, which they either carry alive for 
sale to Carolina, or salt and barrel up, for the use 
of their families at home. These guanas, feed wholly 
on vegetables and fruit, especially on a particular 
kind of fungus growing at the roots 6f trees, and on 
the fruitsof the different kinds of Ananas; their flesh 
is easy of digestion, delicate, and well tasted : they 
are sometimes roasted, but the more common mode 
is to boil them, taking out the fat, which is melted 
and clarified and put into a dish, into which they 
dip the flesh of the guana as they eat it. Though 
not amphibious they (the guanas) are said to keep 
under water above an hour. They cannot run fast, 
and their holes are a greater security to them than 
their heels. They are so impatient of cold that they 
rarely appear out of their holes but when the sun 
shines." 

In Jamaica this lizard is now nearly if not quite 
extinct; formerly it was tolerably common. Brown, 
in his History of that island (1756), says that the 
guana lives for a considerable time without food (as 
indeed do most reptiles), and changes its colour with 
the weather, or the natural moisture of its place of 
residence. " I have kept," he adds, " a grown 
guana about the house for more than two months : 
it was very fierce and ill-natured at the beginning, 
but after some few days it grew more tame, and 
would at length pass the greatest part of the day 
upon the bed or couch, but always went out at 
night. The flesh of this creature is liked by many 
])eople, and frequently served up in fricassees at 
their tables, in which state it is often preferred to 
the best fowls. When taken young the guana is 
easily tamed, and is both a harmless and beautiful 
creature in that state. 

The general colour of this species is dark green, 
more or less tinged with olive, sometimes with 
blue ; generally a few brown bands are observable 
on the sides ; the tail is alternately ringed with 
brown and greenish, or yellowish-green ; the sides 
of the neck are covered with tubercles ; a large 
circular scale is conspicuous on the lower jaw 
below the tympanic membrane of the auditory 
orifice. 

2157. — ^The Smooth-Necked Iguana 

(Iguana nudlcoUis). Iguana delicatissima, Lau- 
rent i. 

This species, which is a native of Brazil, Marti- 
nique, Guadaloupe, &c., differs from the preceding 
in the absence of tubercles on the neck, and of the 
great circular plate beneath the tympanic mem- 
brane ; it has a range of large strong scales along 
each branch of the lower jaw. Its general colour 
is of a uniform green, or rather bluish green, paler 
beneath. Its habits and manners are the same as 
those of the Ig. tuberculata, and its flesh is equally 
esteemed. 

A third species, more nearly allied to the Iguana 
tuberculata, is a native of Mexico, and also of St. 
Domingo or Hayti. It is distinguished by having 
the muzzle surmounted with three or four scales 
elevated in the form of compressed horns, and 
placed in a series. There is a large circular plate 
below the tympanic membrane. 

These three species have been till recently con- 
founded together, and the title " delicatissima" has 
been applied equally to them. 

2158, 2159, 2160. — Remains of Iguanodon. 

In the Wealdon fresh-water formation of the South 
of England, intermediate between the marine 
oolitic deposits of the Portland stone, and those ot 
the green-sand formation of the cretaceous series, 
the remains of an extinct gigantic reptile occur, 
closely allied to the Iguana of modern days. We 
owe the discovery of them to Dr. Mantell. The 
teeth, which Cuvier at first _regarded as those of a 
rhinoceros, evidently indicate an herbivorous appe- 
tite, and were fitted for grinding tough vegetables 
to a pulp.* The length of this reptile could not 
have been much under seventy feet, and was perhaps 
more. 

"The teeth," writes Dr. Buckland, "exhibit two 
kinds of provision to maintain sharp edges along the 
cutting surface, from their first protrusion, until they 
were worn down to the very stump. The first of 

•Tlic fossil remains of Clutliraria and similar Tegetables were fonixl 
entombed with the relics of the lyuanodon. 




2ii«.— Teeth of FoMll Ignanodon. 





Sli;;.— Gr at CretJed Anolii. 



s:6».— W1itr«»p»rtd Anollt. 




(1«S.-IIaai)ed Nuiluk. 




2 168.— Common Stellio and Spine-footed Stellio. 



a:ij4.— Krin.-e.l I> a'ort.; 




2185. — Skeleton of Fringed Dragon. 




810".— Spiue-footed Stollic. 







V'' 



3.6«.^(%in<lK»lSt*lll«. 



No. 62. Vol. II, 



[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



89 



90 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Stellio. 



tbeae U a sharp and lerrated edi<e, extending on 
each side downwards, from the point to the broadest 
portion of the body of the tooth. The second pro- 
vision is one of compensation for the gradual de- 
struction of this senatpd edge, by substituting a 
plate of thin enamel, to maintain a cutting power in 
. the anterior portion of the tooth, until its entire 
substance was consumed in service. Whilst the 
crown of the tooth was thus gradually diminishing 
above, a simultaneous absorption of the root went 
on below, caused by the pressure of a new tooth 
rising to replace the old one, until, by this continual 
consumption at both extremities, the middle por- 
tion of the older tooth was reduced to a hollow 
stump, which fell from the jaw to make room for a 
more efficient successor." The young tooth some- 
what resembled a serrated lancet. Dr. Bock land 
observes, that this serrature ceased at the broadest 
diameter of the tooth, that is, precisely at the line 
below which, had the serrations been continued, 
they would have had no effect in cutting. As 
, these saw-like edges were gradually worn away, the 
cutting power was transfened to the enamel in front, 
which was traversed by alternate longitudinal ridges 
and furrows, the latter serving" as ribs or buttresses 
to strengthen and prevent the enamel from scaling 
off, and forming, together with the furrows, an edge 
slightly wavy, and disposed in a series of minute 
gouges, or fluted chisels; hence the tooth became 
an instrument of greater power to cut tough vege- 
tables under the action of the jaw, than if the 
enamel had been in a continuous straight line. By 
these contrivances, also, it continued effective 
durmg every stage through which it passed, from 
the serrated lancet-point of the new tooth to its final 
consumption." 

At Fig. 21.58 are exhibited, a, the Crown of a 
Tooth of the Iguanodon not worn by use, closely re- 
sembling i, the Magnified Tooth of a recent Iguana; 
c, is a Portion of the Upper Jaw of a recent Iguana 
with Eight Teeth highly magnified ; d. Front View 
of a Tooth of the Iguanodon, natural size, the point 
is worn by grinding food ; e, is a Back View of the 
same Tooth ;/, Front and Back View of a Tooth of 
the Iguanodon worn down by use ; g, the Worn 
Surface ; h, the Cavity formed by the pressure of a 
new tooth, as in the teeth of the Iguana at c. 

Fig. 2159 exhibits, a, the Young Tooth of Igua- 
nodon ; b and c, Teeth further advanced and worn. 

Fig. 2160 exhibits a sort of Nasal Horn (one-third 
the natural size) seated on the snout of this huge 
reptile, the thigh bone of which exceeds in bulk 
that of the largest elephant, and measures from four 
to five feet in length. These relics have been col- 
lected in the Isle of Wight, and Purbeck, Tilgate 
Forest, and in the Rag-quarries near Maidstone. 

2161. — The Great Crested Ajjolis 

\Anolis velifer). The genus Anolis is peculiar to 
America and the adjacent islands, where the spe- 

-cies appear to take the place in some measure of 

the geckos, the structure of their toes enabling them, 

if not to traverse a smooth wall or ceiling, at all 
events to climb with great facility. The last joint 

but one of each toe is furnished with a pad beneath, 
more or less developed, and transversely striated, 

■so as to act as a sucker, and thus secufe the animals 
more firmly to the trunks or branches of trees over 

'xvhich they may be making their way. The toes 
are long, well divided, and furnished with sharp 
hooked claws. The limbs are long. The tail is 
slender, elongated, compressed, and tapering. The 
skin is iiTCgularly granulated with round scales ; 
those on the head are mostly pentagonal or hex- 
agonal. The tongue is short, fleshy, rounded at the 
tip, and very restricted in its movements, being at- 
tached almost throughout its whole length to the 
lower jaw. The teeth, of which, besides the max- 
illary, there are two palatal rows, are sharp and ser- 
rated. The skin of the throat forms a pendulous 
dewlap capable of being inflated, and in one spe- 
cies, a native of the West India Islands (A. bullaris, 
Gmel.), is when distended of a bright cherry red. 
The nostrils are small, and the tympanic membrane 
is more or less below the level of the auditory 
orifice, which is minute and simple. In some spe- 
cies both the back and tail are furnished with a 
longitudinal notched crest ; in some that on the tail 
is wanting. 

Slender, active, and of small size, these little rep- 
tiles frequent woods and rocky places, running, 
climbing, and leaping with singular address and 
celerity ; so rapid indeed are their movements, that 
they have been compared to the flitting of birds. 
When tired and overheated by these exertions, they 
stop, open their mouths, and pant like a dog. They 
are very timid and harmless, and when under the 
influence of fear or anger, or otherwise excited, they 
dilate the dewlap, or loose fold of the throat, to a 
great extent, and assume an endless succession of 
ever-varying hues, the tints of the skin generally, 
but especially of the throat, changing with even 



greater rapidity than in the chameleon. Tliough 

often inhabiting woods and thickets along the bor. 
ders of rivers, it does not appear that they take to 
the water like the iguana. Insects constitute their 
food, and these they pursue with great eagerness 
and celerity. Cuvier, liowever, found berries in the 
stomach of the Great Crested Anolis. 

The great crested anolis is one of the largest of 
the genus, the body measuring a foot in length: it 
is a native of Jamaica and the Antilles, generally 
residing in woods and lodging in hollow trees, where 
the female deposits her eggs. This species is ex- 
tremely restless, ever in motion ; timid, and yet not 
without curiosity, for while peeping from the bough 
of a tree, as if to scrutinize what might be going 
forward, it allows itself to be caught in snares, and 
will also unsuspiciously noose itself in those which 
the children in the West Indies place in its haunts, 
alluring it from its concealment by imitating its 
voice. When pleased it utters a low but acute 
chirp. 

A dentelated crest, supported by the elongated 
spinous processes of the vertebral column, runs 
along the back and half of the tail ; the dewlap is 
very extensive. Its colour is a dark ashy blue. 

2162. — TlIK WuiTE-SCARrED AXOLIS 

{Anolis eqttestrU). Le grand Anolis ii dcharpe of 
Cuvier. 

This species inhabits the Antilles, and specimens 
in the Paris Museum have been received from 
Cuba. It is also found in Jamaica, and is figured 
by Sir Hans Sloane in his history of that island. 

This species equals the preceding in size ; there 
is but an indication of a crest on the base of the 
tail, which is more fleshy than in anolis velifer, so 
as to conceal the spinous processes, which are 
equally as elongated as in that reptile. The general 
colour is a pale tawny, the yellow clouded with 
blending tints of ashy lilac. The skin of the throat 
is white, and a band of the same colour passes over 
each shoulder and runs half way down each side. 

Mr. Bell, in his interesting work on 'British 
Reptiles,' relates a singular circumstance respecting 
the green anolis of the West Indies (Anolis bullaris, 
Gm. ; Anolis chloro-cyanus, Bibr.), which, as he 
well remarks, proves that lizards in the act of seizing 
their food must often be exposed to danger from the 
noxious qualities of the insects which they indis- 
criminately attack; and he adds, "the following 
fact would seem to indicate that, even in our own 
temperate climate, an insect not generally recognised 
as poisonous may inflict a fatal injury on its Saurian 
enemy." " Some years since," he continues, " I had 
in my possession two living specimens of the beauti- 
ful little green anolis of the West Indies, a lizard 
about the size of our own smallest species. I was in 
the habit of feeding them with flies and other 
insects ; and having one day placed in the cage with 
them a very large garden spider, Epeira diadema, 
one of the lizards darted at it, but only seized it by 
the leg. The spider instantly ran round and round 
the creature's mouth, weaving a very thick web 
round both jaws, and then gave it a severe bite in 
the lip, just as this species of spider does with any 
large insect which it hastaken. The lizard was greatly 
distressed ; and I removed the spider, and rubbed oft 
the web, the confinement of which appeared to give 
it great annoyance ; but in a few days it died, though 
previously in as perfect health as its companion, 
which lived for a long time afterwards." 

2163. — The Hooded Basilisk 

(Basilisms mitratus). Though the Basilisk of the 
ancients was a fabulous animal, the name is still re- 
tained as the title of an American genus of Iguanian 
reptiles, distinguished by an elevated fin-like crest 
on the back and basal portion of the tail, supported 
by the elongated spinous processes of the dorsal and 
caudal vertebrae : the skin of the throat, contrary to 
the general rule, in the present reptile is not dilata- 
ble ; but, to counterbalance this, there is a large mem- 
branous sac on the occiput,capable of being distended 
with air at pleasure. The head is thick and short ; 
the general contourstout ; the limbs long and power- 
ful ; the tail elongated, tapering, and compressed at 
the sides ; the toes long and armed with small claws ; 
the skin is covered with small scales of a rhomboi- 
dal form, and generally speaking slightly carinated. 
Palatal as well as maxillary teeth. No femoral pores. 

In their habits these animals, like the iguanas, 
are arboreal, climbing with great ease and celerity ; 
but they are also aquatic, swimming with great ad- 
dress, while they lash the water from side to side 
with their finny tail. They are said to live on grain 
and fruits. The flesh is held in estimation. 

The Hooded Basilisk is a native of Guiana, Mar- 
tinique, and the tropical countries of South America 
generally, and attains to a considerable size, the tail 
being nearly twice as long as the head and body. 
It is very harmless, though of formidable aspect, 
and when alarmed drops off the branch into the 
water and swims rapidly away. The colour is 



yellowish brovm passing into white on the under 
parts; the throat is longitudinally striped with 
leaden brown, which colour prevails on the sides of 
the neck; a longitudinal stripe edged with black 
extends from each eye along the back of the neck 
to the sides of the dorsal region, and there blends 
with the general tint. The hood and crests are 
more developed in the male than the female. 

A distinct species, the Banded Basilisk (B. vit- 
tatus, Weigmann), inhabits the forests of Mexico. 
We may now pass to the acrodontous iguanidae. 

2164. — The Fbinoed Dragon 
(Ihaco flmbriatus). The little harmless arboreal 
reptiles distinguished by the portentous name of 
Draco have nothing in them to startle the most 
timid : they are distinguished at once bv a wing- 
like expansion of skin along their sides, supported by 
the six first false ribs, which are very slender and 
greatly elongated (see Skeleton, Fig. 216."j), and 
which when at the full stretch acts the part of a 
parachute, enabling these creatures to skim like the 
flying squirrels, from branch to branch, or from tree 
to tree, with great ease, but in no respect approxi- 
mates either in structure or action to the wing of a 
bird or bat. 

Belovv the throat hangs a long pointed dewlap, 
supported by a stylet of the os hyoides. On each 
side of the neck is a fold of skin, and there is gene- 
rally a small cervical crest ; the tongue is thick and 
rounded. The head is short and triangular; the 
limbs long; the thighs without pores. The tail is 
long and slender. The skin is covered by small im- 
bricated scales, of which those of the limbs and 
tail are carinated. Several species are known, na- 
tives of India, Java, Sumatra, Timor, Manilla, &c. 

In their habits these little sweeping lizards are 
arboreal, searching on the leaves and in the crevices 
of the bark of trees for insects, on which they feed. 
They are prompt in their motions. 

The Fringed Dragon is a native of Java ; the up- 
per parts are clouded with brown on a grey or olive- 
grey ground, and often ornamented with black 
spots within a white ring; the wings are striped 
with white. Fig. 2164 exhibits this species (natural 
size), profile of the head, and one of the toes (en- 
larged). 

2166. — The Common Stellio 
(Stellio vulgaris). In the genus Stellio the head is 
triangular, flattened, and moderately long ; the sides 
of the muzzle angular ; the tongue thick, spongy, and 
slightly notched at the point : on each side of the back 
is a fold of skin covered with larger scales than those 
of the sides. No femoral pores, but follicular scales 
across the lower part of the abdomen. The tail is 
subconical and covered with rings of scales more or 
less spinous. The back and thighs are here and 
there varied with scales exceeding the rest, and 
sometimes spinous ; small groups of spines surround 
the auditory orifice. 

The Common Stellio measures about a foot in 
length, and is spread over the whole of the Levant ; 
it is extremely common in Egypt, Syria, and Greece, 
where it tenants old walls, ruins, masses of moulder- 
ing piles of stones, retiring within the crevices for 
safety. It feeds on all kinds of insects. It is called 
«««o{J<x« by the modern Greeks, and Hardun by 
the Arabs. It has a curious motion of the head, 
wherefore the Mahometans make a point of killing 
it, because they say it mocks them by bending down 
its head, as they do during their devotions. The 
general colour of this species is olive clouded with 
black ; all the under parts yellow, or olive-yellow. 

2167. — The Spine-footed Stellio 

(Uromastix spinipes). Le Fouette-queue d'Egypte 
of Cuvier. 

The genus Uromastix differs from Stellio in the 
head being less swollen posteriorly ; and all the 
scales of the body are small, smooth, and uniform ; 
those of the tail are, however, much larger and more 
spiny than in the common stellio, but are wanting 
on the under surface. There is a series of femoral 
pores. The muzzle is arched above. 

This species attains to the length of two or three 
feet, and is a native of Egypt, where it inhabits 
deserts, tenanting moiddering ruins, and other places 
of refuge. Belon regarded it as the land crocodile, 
(<t{«»»SiiA,« X'!""") o' Herodotus and the ancients, 
but without any proof ; that animal was most pro- 
bably the Desert Varan of Egypt (Varanus arena- 
rius), the warcU or ouaran cl hard of the Arabs. 

The present reptile has a row of spinous scales 
along each thigh ; its body is tumid ; its general 
colour, while alive, of a fine grass green, which be- 
comes lost in dried specimens, or such as are pre- 
served in spirits. 

2168. — The Commox Stellio and the 
Spine-footed Stellio. 
These reptiles, which we have just described, were, 
no doubt, well known to the Latins. Our classical 



Varans.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



91 



readers are well acquainted with the terra stellio, 
and that one, if not both, of the reptiles in question 
is " Le Stellion des Anciens" is the opinion of 
Isidore, GeofFroy, and naturalists generally. 

The upper figure is that of the Comraon Stellio, 
the lower that of the Spine-footed Stellio. 

2169. — The Mubicated Lizakd 

(Grammatophora muricata). Agama muricata, 
Daudin. 

The genus Agama, of Daudin and others, is in 
the present day greatly subdivided : the group 
indeed, according to Mr. Gray's arrangement, con- 
stitutes a family per se, but not in the system of 
M-AI. Dum6ril and Bibron. 

The agamas are in general short, thick-bodied 
lizards, covered with a lax skin, capable of being 
inflated with air at the will of the animals, and 
covered with minute scales, often keeled, or spiny, 
and some species are defended by a bristling panoply 
of sharp spikes. Many are very toad-like, and, were 
it not for the presence of a tail, might be mistaken 
for that reptile on a first glance. In the restricted 
genus Agama there are no thigh-pores ; in other 
genera, however, these exist. They usually reside 
among rocks, heaps of stones, and mouldering ruins, 
concealing themselves in chinks and fissures, and 
their dull and sombre colours tend to their eluding 
notice ; such have the limbs short, and the toes 
stout. Others, with a more slender contour, longer 
limbs," and more flexible toes, are more or less 
arboreal, and ascend trees with facility. The head 
is generally short, broad, and flat, and the tail com- 
paratively short. There are no palatal teeth : the 
tongue is short and spongy. Many are capable of 
changing the colours of the skin. 

The geographical distribution of the agamas is 
very extensive ; they are found in Asia, Africa, 
America, and Australia. j 

In the genus Grammatophora the scales of the ! 
back are imbricated and carinated, here and there 
beset with spines ; the tail is long and conical, and j 
covered with scales disposed in a file-like manner ; i 
the tympanic membrane is large ; femoral pores 
exist. The general figure is more slender than in 
most of the other genera, but still depressed, and 
the form of the upper surface of the head is trian- 
gular. The muricated lizard is a native of New 
Holland, and was first described by the celebrated 
John Hunter in the zoological part of White's 
Voyage to New South Wales. In its habits it is 
arboreal, living in the woods, and traversing the 
tnmks and branches of trees in quest of insects and 
their larvse ; it is quick and active in its movements, 
and in some districts is very common. 

The length of this species, including the tail, 
which is twice as long as the body, is twelve or four- 
teen inches. The toes are long and well divided, 
and furnished on the under surface with small 
pointed scales. The general colour is brownish 
grey marked with dusky bars, running on the body 
in a longitudinal direction, but transversely on the 
limbs and tail. The scales covering the upper parts 
of the trunk, the sides, and the extremities, are 
rhomboidal and carinated, or elevated into sharp- 
pointed ridges forming numerous parallel rows of 
spines, from the top of the back to the end of the 
tail. The head is covered with scales similarly 
carinated, forming upon the occiput a crest of weak 
spines ; of the toes, the two middle by far exceed 
the others. 

2170.— The Spixt Agama 

{Agama spinosa, Bibron). Agama aculeata, Cuvier. 

This species has been confounded with another, 
the Agama aculeata of Seba, a much more slender 
animal, but a native of the same country, viz., the 
Cape of Good Hope; both are referable to the 
Lacerta hispida of Linnaeus, 'Syst. Nat.,' 10th 
edit. 

The true agama spinosa is a short squat lizard, 
covered on the upper surface of the body with scales 
having sharp elevated points, those of the under 
parts being also carinated and sharp. The general 
colour above varies from yellow to olive brown, 
varied with markings of black. It is common in 
South Africa. 

We may here observe that the genus Agama of 
Dumeril and Bibron includes Trapelus of Cuvier, and j 
consequently that singular species the Orbicular or J 
Changeable Agama of Kgypt (A. mutabilis, Mer- | 
rem ; Trapelus ^gyptus, Cuvier), and two allied j 
species, besides several others. 

2171. — The Changeable Agama 

{Agama mutahilis, Merrem). Trapelus .lEgyptus, 
Cuvier ; Trapelus mutabilis, Gray ; I'Agame vari- 
able ou changeant, Isidore and Geoffroy ; Rept. 
d'Keypte, I'Agame orbiculaire, Daudin. 

This species is very common in Egypt, Persia, 
and the North of Africa ; it is also found in Nubia. 
" It is on this species," says M. Bibron, "that Cuvier, 



has founded the genus Trapelus, which cannot be 
preserved, because it has no character really of 
importance to distinguish it from Agama ; not even 
that on which Cuvier rested (viz., the smoothness 
of the scales); for the scales of the back, though 
they present less-developed spines than those of 
most of the agamas, are not destitute of them, as 
the author of the ' R6gne Animal' has stated." This 
little lizard has obtained the title " orbicular" from 
its habit of inflating its body, and assuming a putfed- 
up, toad-like appearance ; and that of " changeable" 
from its frequent change of colouring. It is, as M. 
GeoiFroy observed, often of a deep blue clouded with 
violet, having the tail ringed with black, and with 
four or five regular transverse lines of reddish spots 
on the back. At other times the blue is exchanged 
for pale lilac, while the head and feet are tinged 
with green, the little reddish spots on the back alone 
remaining.. We have seen some of a pale olive, 
with the throat blue and the under parts of a green 
tint, some of a uniform ashy grey, others clouded 
or spotted with brown. 

2172. — The Feilled Lizard 

{Chlamydosaums King'd). This extraordinary 
lizard, a native of Australia, is at once to be known 
by an expanse of skin supported by a crescent- 
shaped cartilage on each side of the neck, forming 
an expanded frill, capable of being folded up or 
spread out ; the edge of this frill is serrated, and 
the whole is covered with small keeled scales ; the 
j head is short ; the tail long ; the feet well adapted 
j for climbing. There are femoral pores. 

When fully grown this species measures nearly 
three feet in total length ; it is arboreal in its habits, 
and was first discovered by Mr. Allan Cunningham, 
who accompanied Captain King's expedition as 
botanical collector. He found the specimen, from 
which the original description was taken, on the 
branch of a tree in Careening Bay, at the bottom of 
Port Nelson, and sent it to Sir E. Home, by whom 
it was deposited in the Museum of the Royal College 
of Surgeons. In his Journal, Mr. Cunningham thus 
writes : — " I secured a lizard of extraordinary ap- 
pearance, which had perched itself upon the stem 
of a small decayed tree : it had a curious crenated 
membrane, with a ruff or tippet round its neck, 
covering its shoulders, and when expanded by means 
of slender transverse cartilages it spreads five inches 
on each side in the form of an open umbrella. Its 
head was rather large, and its eyes, whilst living, 
rather prominent ; its tongue, though bifid, was thick 
and short, and appeared to be tubular." 

Several fine specimens of this lizard are in the 
British Museum. 

Captain Grey (see his ' Travels in Australia,' vol. i. 
p. 194) says, " As we were pursuing our route in the 
afternoon we fell in with a specimen of the remark- 
able frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus Kingii). It lives 
principally in trees, though it can run very swiftly 
along the ground. When not provoked or disturbed, 
it moves quietly about with its frill lying back in 
plaits upon the body ; but it is very irascible, and 
directly it is frightened it elevates the frill or ruif 
and makes for a tree, where, if overtaken, it throws 
itself upon its stern, raising its head and chest as 
high as it can upon the fore-legs : then doubling its 
tail underneath the body, and displaying a very 
formidable set of teeth from the concavity of its 
large frill, it boldly faces an opponent, biting 
fiercely whatever is presented to it, and even ven- 
turing so far in its rage as to fairly make a charge 
at its enemy. We repeatedly tried the courage of 
this lizard, and it certainly fought bravely whenever 
attacked. From the animal making so much use of 
its frill as a covering and means of defence for its 
body, this is most probably one of the uses to which 
nature intended the appendage should be applied." 

The general colour of this species is yellowish 
brown, variegated with black ; tongue and inside of 
the mouth yellow. 

Family VARANID^ (VARANS). 

With the exception of the Crocodiles, the Varans 
are the largest of the Saurian reptiles ; their figure 
is elongated and graceful, their actions quick and 
alert; some are terrestrial, but others, with the tail 
compressed laterally, are aquatic, swimming with 
the greatest celerity. 

In the terrestrial varans the tail is conical and 
nearly rounded, and on land assists the animals in 
their rapid serpentine movements, and in springing 
upon their prey ; the head is elongated ; the muzzle 
acute ; the eyes large and bright ; the auditory 
orifices are very apparent, and seated near the 
angle of the mouth ; the tongue is fleshy and very 
extensible, being, when fully protruded, nearly 
twice as long as the head ; it is deeply forked at the ; 
tip like that of a snake. There are no palatal teeth | 
nor femoral pores. 

The skin is covered with scales, not imbricated, 
but placed side by side so as to form circi-lar rings ; 



I they are of an ova! form, convex, and surrounded 
each by an annular row of small tubercles. There 
is a fold between the neck and chest. The limbs 
are powerful, the toes large and strong, and armed 
with sharp claws. 

The usual places tenanted by the terrestrial varans 
are deserts and rocky places ; the aquatic species 
frequent the banks of rivers : in the latter the tail is 
a most important instrument of progression in the 
water: they lash it with great energy from side to 
side, thus propelling themselves along with vast 
rapidity. 

The food of these reptiles consists of the larger 
kinds of insects, as locusts, &c., various kinds of 
lizards, eggs, birds, and small mammalia, tortoises, 
fishes, &c. M. Duraeril, on the authority of M. 
Leschenault de Latour, confirms the accounts of 
travellei-s, who assert that they often combine in 
order to chase their prey ; he assurp us that they 
unite in packs on the borders of rivers, and seize 
such quadrupeds as approach unsuspectingly to 
drink. He has seen them pursue a young deer 
which was attempting to swim across a river, and 
succeed in drowning it. He found on one occasion 
the thigh bone of a sheep in the stomach of a spe- 
cimen which he dissected. 

Of these animals none are European, and one 
only (Heloderma horridum) a native of America ; 
the others are natives of India and its islands, the 
Philippines, the Moluccas, &c., and also of Aus- 
tralia. 

Fig. 2173 exhibits — a, the Head of Varanus ne- 
bulosus ; h, the Dorsal Scales of the same ; c, the 
Dorsal Scales of Varanus Niloticus; d, the Dorsal 
Scales of Varunus Picquotii. 

One species, the desert varan of Egypt, the 
Ouran-el-hard of the Arabs (Varenarius), is most 
probably the terrestrial crocodile of Herodotus, 
which he describes as a species not more than three 
cubits in length, and much like a lizard. 

Under the title Monitor, Cuvier comprehends the 
Varans, and the Teguixins and Ameivas of America 
(Teidae of Mr. Gray). It is best to drop the term 
Monitor altogether. 

2174. — The White-thboated Varaj* 

( Varanus albogularis). Tupinambis gularis, Dau Jin r 
Varanus ornatus, Merrem ; Tupinambis albogularis, . 
Kuhl ; Polydaedalus albogularis, Wagler ; Monitor 
albogularis. Gray. 

This varan is a native of South Africa, and, though 
not strictly aquatic in its habits, often resorts to 
water in quest of prey. 

We learn from Dr. Smith that during his expe- 
dition he did not obtain any specimens south of 
Latakoo ; but he says there is reason to believe that 
it occasionally occurs within the limits of the Cape 
colony ; and adds that it is in all probability the ani- 
mal called das adder by the colonists, and which is • 
I so much dreaded from a supposition that it is ex- 
tremely venomous. " It is usually discovered in 
rocky precipices, or on low stony hills, and when 
surprised seeks concealment in the chinks of the 
former, or in the irregular cavities of the latSer ; 
and when any irregularities exist oh the surface •(■ ' 
; the stones or rocks, it clasps them so firmly with xif 
toes that it becomes a task of no small difficulty to 
dislodge it, even though it be easily reached. Under 
! such circumstances the strength of no one man is 
able to withdraw a full-grown individual, and I 
have seen two persons required to pull a specimen 
out of a position it had attained, even with the as- 
sistance of a rope fixed in front of its hinder legs. 
The moment it was dislodged it flew with fury at 
its enemies, who by flight only saved themselves 
from being bitten. After it was killed, it was dis- 
covered that the points of all the nails had been 
previously broken, or at the moment it lost its hold. 
It feeds upon crabs, frogs, and small quadrupeds, 
and from its partiality to the two former it is often 
found among rocks near running streams, which 
fact, having been observed by the natives, has led 
them to regard it as sacred, and not to be injured 
without danger of drought." This species, when 
adult, measures nearly five feet in length. Its co- 
lours are mingled brown and yellow, with spots of 
black. 

2175. — The Varax or the Nile 

{Varanus Niloticus). This species, one of the 
aquatic tribe, is very common in the Nile, in the 
Senegal, and the Galbar near Sierra Leone. It 
would appear also to inhabit the rivers of Southern 
Africa, if the species seen there by Sparrman and 
Le Vaillant are the same. 

The present animal is often seen sculptured on 
the monuments of the ancient Egyptians, though it 
does not appear to be noticed by Herodotus, who 
perhaps confounded this and the land varan toge- 
ther. The inhabitants of Egypt assured Geoffroy 
St. Hilaire that this ouaran was the first state of the 
young crocodile, an assertion the more surprising as 
they could not have been ignorant of the characters 

N 2 








2 1;3.— U wd aail Ooaal Scjiei »f Vruani. 



tl6t.— Murialel Liiad. 




ilTP Spuiy Agttna. 





21T4.— Wlute-throated Varan. 



2175.— Varan of tlic Jvile. 





SITT.— BtflVs Vanul. 



81*1.— Cliang«»tile Agama. 




»I-8.— Skull and t'ndw Jaw^of Vaian of the MU. 

92 





K172 FiiUeil Uaid. 





2178.~UougIi>icaled fielodenna. 



ai8t.— Terfulxhj. 




21T3.— Scales of Head of the above. 




2T82.— Head of a True lizard. 





\ V- 



tlK, — Lower Jaw of Lizard ; Fossil. 



2185— Group cf Liianij. 




aiS«.-8«id-Luad. 




2180.— Head of Tegiiixiu. 











£188.— Viriparojs Llzarils. 



93 



94 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Lizards. 



of that animal, txith young and adult. It swims 
admirably, and causes great destruction among the 
younij crocodiles, which can only escape by taking 
refuge under the adults of their own species. It 
aiso searches for the eggs of that reptile, devouring 
them like the ichneumon. 

The length of the Varan of the Nile is between 
five and six feet ; its general colour is greenish grey 
mottled with black ; four or five horseshoe marks 
of yellow in succession are on the back of the neck, 
and seven or eight rows of spoU, of a greenish-yellow 
tint, extend from the shoulders to the root of the 
tail ; a black stripe runs before each shoulder. The 
fii-st half of the tail is banded with black, the re- 
mainder ringed with greenish yellow. Fig. 2170 
exhibits — a, the Skull of this species seen from 
above ; b, the Under Jaw. 

2177. — Brix's Varan 

(Vartnua Bdlii). This beautiful varan is a native 
of New Holland, and one of the aquatic tribe : it is 
agreeably parti-coloured ; deep black and pale yel- 
low or whitish. It is a large species, and agrees in 
habits with the rest of its race. 

2178. — The Rough-scaled Heloderma 

(Heloderma horridicm). In the genus Heloderma 
the scales are not encircled by a ring of granules ; 
the tail is rounded ; and the fifth toe of the hind- 
foot is on the same line at its origin as the rest. 
The disposition of the scales of the head is exhibited 
at Fig. 2179. 

One species only is known, a native of Mexico, 
where there is a general but erroneoiis belief that 
its bite is fatal. The general colour of this species 
is of a blackish brown above, paler below ; there 
are red marks on the neck and back, dotted with 
yellowish or whitish ; the tail is ringed with reddish. 
Length about three feet. 

Family TEID/E (TEGUIXINS). 

This family is exclusively American, and contains 
those large lizards known as safeguards, monitors, 
&c., from an idea that they gave warning by a hiss 
of the proximity of the alligator, and the same has 
been supposed, but erroneously, respecting the 
varans. 

The tongue in these Teidae is long, extensible, 
forked, and with a basal sheath, into which it is re- 
tracted. No palatal teeth. Tympanic membrane 
on a level with the skin. Back covered with small 
angular, smooth, but not imbricated scales, disposed 
in transverse bands. Ventral plates flat, smooth, 
and oblong. 

Skin of the lower part of the neck disposed in 
two or three simple transverse folds. Head covered 
with large plates. Femoral pores present. Tail 
long, and slightly compressed. Fig. 2180 displays 
Head of the Teguixin or " Sauvegarde." 

These lizards are natives of the warmer portions 
of America, inhabiting fields, thickets, and the bor- 
ders of woods, as well as sandy arid plains and 
sterile spots, where they are said to form deep bur- 
rows, in which they hybernate. According to 
MM. Dum^ril and Bibron, they are not arboreal, 
never ascending trees. Azara states that, when pur- 
sued, should they meet with a lake, pond, or river, 
they throw themselves into the water, in order to 
escape the danger which threatens them, and do 
not emerge till all cause for fear is over. These 
animals however, as MM. Dumdril and Bibron ob- 
serve, have not the toes webbed, but their long tail, 
slightly as it is compressed, becomes without doubt, 
under such circumstances, a sort of oar, of which 
they readily avail themselves. It is said by Azara 
that these lizards feed on fruits and insects, and 
that they also eat snakes, toads, young chickens, and 
eggs. He moreover relates that they are partial to 
honey, and that, in order to procure it without being 
injured by the bees, they have recourse to artifice, 
advancing at intervals to the hive, which they strike 
with their tail, and rapidly dart away, till at last, 
wearied out by repetitions of the annoyance, the in- 
dustrious inhabitants quit the hive. We cannot 
help confessing that we have some feelings of doubt 
as to the correctness of this account. 

M. Bibron observes that he has never been able 
to satisfy himself as to the frugivorous habits of the 
sauvegardes, but that they feed on insects is fully 
proved from the stomachs of those opened being 
found to contain their remains ; and on one occasion, 
amidst the debris of coleoptera, and the shrivelled 
relics of caterpillars, were found strips of the skin 
and portions of the bones of a well-known species 
of lizard, the common ameiva. 

The sauvegardes often exceed four feet in length ; 
and are strong and active, and have an imposing 
aspect. 

2181.— The Teguixix 

(Teguixin monitor, Gray). Variegated Lizard, 
Shaw ; Great American Safeguard, Griffiths, Cu- 
vier ; Lacerta Teguixin, Linn. ; Tupinambis monitor. 



Daudin ; Teius monitor, Merrem ; Podinema Te- 
guixin, Wagler; Salvator Merianae, Dumdril and 
Bibron. 

This species is spread over the warmer parts of 
South America and the Antilles, and was faithfully 
figured by Madame Merian, botli in its young and 
adult condition ; and also by Seba and Spix, and 
more recently by Prince Maximilien de Wied. 

When fully grown it measures nearly five feet in 
length, and is active and vigorous. Azara says that 
when, in order to escape danger, it plunges into the 
water, it does not swim, but walks along the bottom ; 
we rather suspect, however, that it dives and re- 
I mains motionless at the bottom, or under the cover 
of aijuatic plants, being enabled, from the structure 
of its voluminous lungs, to endure for a considerable 
time without the necessity of respiration. It de- 
fends itself when captured with great resolution, 
and will bite severely, retaining its hold with in- 
flexible obstinacy, and the same observation applies 
to it when it has seized- its prey. Its flesh is ac- 
counted excellent, and Azara says that rings of skin 
stripped from its tail are worn as preventives against 
paralysis, from a belief in their efficacy, and that it 
IS considered useful in removing tumours. 

The colouring of this species is somewhat variable ; 
generally, however, the ground-colour of the upper 
parts is black, often deep black, on which some- 
times small and irregular spots of a rich yellow, 
sometimes large regular spots, are disposed so as to 
produce transverse bands. Generally a stripe runs 
on each side from the occiput to the root of the 
tail. Under parts yellow marked with black bands. 

Family LACERTID^ (TRUE LIZARDS). 

Bright-eyed, active, and of slender figure, often 
adorned with brilliant colours, the true lizards have 
nothing repulsive in their aspect or manners. • 

These reptiles are covered above by small imbri- 
cated scales ; a minute plate of bone protects the 
orbits above the eyes ; the lop of the head and the 
temples are covered with plates or scuta ; the scales I 
of the tail are long and narrow, and disposed in 
rings around it ; the tongue is long and forked, the 1 
under parts are covered with plates ; and a distinct j 
collar of scales, larger than those of the throat, I 
passes across the lower part of the same, anterior to 
the base of the fore-limbs. A row of pores runs 
down the inside of each thigh. There are generally 
small teeth on the palate. 

Fig. 2182 represents the Head of a True Lizard, as 
an example of the arrangement of the jjlates. j 

2183. — The Viviparous Lizard 

(2^ootoca vivipara). Lacerta agilis of various authors ; I 
Nimble Lizard ; Common Lizard. j 

In the genus Zootoca there are no palatal teeth, ' 
and the females produce their young alive. [ 

Thickets, heaths sunny banks, and sheltered 
orchards are the favourite localities of this little j 
lizard, which in all its actions is graceful, prompt, | 
and rapid. In certain spots they seem to abound. 
We have often, while walking, in the heat of a ' 
summer's day, along a sunny bank covered with 
furze, counted more than a dozen within the space 
of a few yards, basking in the rays, and probably 
watching for their insect food. We have caught 
them, by cautiously surprising and rapidly seizing 
them, but several, notwithstanding all our address, 
have we missed, and one has occasionally left its 
tail wriggling in our hand, though we used not the 
slightest violence, nor ever attempted to retain our 
hold ; it snapped, in fact, like glass, at the slightest 
touch. It is astonishing to see how rapidly, when 
alarmed, these agile little creatures gain their 
burrows, or disappear from view, diving beneath 
the intertangled vegetation ; they seem gone in the 
twinkling of an eye. No less prompt and rapid 
are they in catching their prey ; the moment an 
insect comes near them, or settles on a leaf within 
due distance, their bright eyes mark it ; the next 
instant it is seized and swallowed : the act is won- 
derfully quick and instantaneous. The sight of 
these animals is indeed very acute ; and their hear- 
ing appears also to be by no means deficient ; we 
have seen them on the slightest noise, on the 
snapping of a branch, or a rustle made among the 
leaves, dart off to their burrows, and after a little 
time cautiously make their reappearance, and on 
the least alarm again seek refuge in their retreats. 

Unlike most lizards, which produce eggs covered 
by membrane, and which they deposit in the sand 
or in other places, to be hatched by the warmth of 
the sun, the present species brings forth living 
young, the eggs being hatched while yet within the 
body of the parent. This species is therefore ovo- 
viviparous. The membrane covering the eges is 
very thin, and the female in the month of June 
passes a great portion of the day basking in the 
sun, for the sake of the vivifying heat, as necessary 
for the exclusion of the young from the eggs as if 
they had been previously deposited in the sand. It 
is very remarkable that one out of our two true 



; lizards should be thus ovoviviparous, and one out of 
; our two true snakes, viz., the viper, which brings 
forth living youn?, and basks in the tun that the 
same object may be accomplished. 

The number of young which the viviparous lizard 
produces is four or five, and they are occasionally 
seen in company with their parent, but whether 
they are united together by any instinctive attach- 
ment is doubtful ; the probability is that they keep 
about the spot where they were bom, and where 
the parent has her burrow, and remove by degrees 
as they increase in size and strength, for from their 
birth they are capable of running about, and soon 
begin to exercise their powers in the capture of 
prey. 

During the winter this, as well as the other 
British lizard, hybemates, but whether its torpidity 
is ver)- profound is not ascertained : it appears 
early in the spring, and continues active till au- 
tumn has far advanced, when it betakes itself to its 
burrow. 

This species, and also the sand-lizard, are found 
in Ireland ; with respect to the former, Mr. Bell 
remarks that on the Continent its range does not 
appear to be extensive : " It is not," he adds, 
" found in Italy, nor, 1 believe, in France, and is 
very probably confined in a great measure to our 
own latitude." M. Bibron, however, assures us 
that it exists both in France and Italy, and that 
it inhabits Germany, Switzerland, and Russia, as 
well as the British Islands, preferring mountain 
districts ; and he adds, " M. Tschudi, informs us 
that in Switzerland it frequents, in preference, the 
forests of dry pines, making its runs under the fallen 
leaves, and to these it retreats on the appearance of 
danger. Sometimes, however, it is met with in 
damp and humid forests. In France it is not so 
common as the sand-lizaid, while in England it is 
the contrary." 

The average length of the viviparous lizard is six 
inches ; its colour and markings are subject to va- 
riation; in general the upper parts are of an olive- 
brown, with a dark brown and often interrupted line 
down the middle of the back, and a broad longitu- 
dinal band down each side, between which and the 
middle line are blaci: dashes or spots. In the male 
the under parts are of a fine orange spotted with 
black ; in the female pale olive-grey. 

2184.— The Saxd-Lizard 

{Lacerta agilis, Linn.). Lacerta Stirpium, Daudin. 

This species, an example of the rellricted genus 
Lacerta, is much larger than the viviparous lizard, 
sometimes measuring a foot in length ; we have 
seen specimens upwards of seven inches long, and 
in the ' Linnaean Transactions' an instance is ad- 
duced by the Rev. R. Sheppard, in which the 
measurement exceeded twelve inches (vol. xvi., 
1802). 

It is to the labours of several modern naturalists 
that we owe the extrication of this lizard from 
much confusion, for the term agilis, applied by 
Linnaeus to the present species, has been given in 
England to the viviparous lizard, and in France and 
Italy to the wall-lizard, the common lizard of those 
countries. 

The sand-lizard is subject to much variation of 
colour; indeed, two varieties appear to exist : one, 
and that the most common, of a sandy brown 
colour, more or less rich, with obscure longitudinal 
stripes of a darker tint, and a lateral series of black 
ocellated spots, each with a white or yellowish dot 
in the centre ; the other variety has the uppei parts 
of a brownish green, the green being more or less 
decided, with the same general markings. 

'Ihe ordinary residence of this species is sandy 
heaths, and, though less rapid in its actions than the 
viviparous, it is quick and active, and runs with 
considerable alertness; occasionally it may be seen 
basking on sunny banks and in verdant spots, and 
has been observed also near marshes. According 
to Mr. Bell, it occurs in the neighbourhood of Poole 
both on sandy heaths and in moist situations, and 
that able naturalist adds, " It has been stated, by a 
gentleman of my acquaintance, that the brown 
varieties are confined to the sandy heaths, the 
colours of which are closely imitated by the surface 
of the body, and that the green variety frequents 
the more verdant localities. Be this as it may, and 
it is a statement which at present I can neither con- 
firm nor dispute, it is certain that these varieties 
mentioned by Linnaeus, and seen by Miiller, do 
exist in the place I have named, and within a com- 
paratively short distance." The sand-lizard is com- 
mon in France, but rare in Italy ; it is abundant in 
the middle districts of Europe, and extends as far 
north as Sweden and Denmark. It is found in 
Ireland. According to M. Bibron, it inhabits the 
plains and hills, but never the mountains, of the 
Continent, and gives preference to the margin of 
woods, copses, large gardens, and vineyards. Its 
retreat is a burrow varying in depth, worked < ut 
under a malted collection of herbage, or between 



Snakes.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



the roots of a tree; in this burrow it hybernates, 
having closed the entrance with earth and dried' 
leaves, and does not reappear till the warm 
weather has returned. It feeds on insects. On a 
transient glance of this species running along, it 
might be easily mistaken for the viper, as Mr. Shep- 
pard says it was by himself, its length and the ar- 
rangement of the colours favouring tlie deception ; 
its movements, indeed, are serpentine ; if seized 
whilst thus endeavouring to escape, it will turn and 
bite, and when captured is impatient of coniine- 
ment, avoids observation, and ultimately dies. It is 
indeed extremely timid, and, unlike the beautiful 
green lizard (Lacerta viridis) of southern Europe, 
never can be rendered familiar. 

The sand-lizard deposits its eggs, to the number 
of fourteen or fifteen, in hollows in the sand, which 
it excavates for their reception, and then carefully 
covers them up, leaving them to be hatched by the 
rays of the sim. The young, on exclusion from the 
es:f^, are active, and lead at once an independent 
existence. 

Fig. 2185 exhibit — a, the Viviparous Lizard ; i, 

the Sand Lizard ; c, the Blindworm (Anguis fra- 

•gilis), of which we shall speak hereafter. Fig. 

■ 2186 exhibits the fragment of the lower jaw of a 

lacertine reptile, from the lower chalk near Cam- 

■ bridge. 

We have alluded to the beautiful green lizard, 
which is often brought over to England by Italians 
for show or sale, and kept in cages. This species is 
a native of France, Italy, Spain, Greece, and the 
Mediterranean borders of Africa. It is said also to 
occur in the island of Guernsey, but it exists neither 
in England nor Ireland. Orchards, large gardens, 
shrubberies, brakes, and thickets, are the haunts of 
this lizard, and, though it cannot be called arboreal, 
it climbs the stems of bushes with great facility in 
quest of insect food. It is quick and active in its 
movements, and darts rapidly on its prey. In cap- 
tivity it soon becomes very tame, and will take flies 
from those with whom it is familiar, and permit 
itself to be handled without attempting to bite. It 
is usually kept in a cage, having an inner compart- 
ment filled with moss or dried bran, in which it 
buries itself, and will remain in a state of hyberna- 
tion during the winter. This lizard should be pro- 
tected from sudden changes of weather, for it is very 
sensitive, and does not well endure cold ; it delights 
to bask in the genial rays of the sun, while its bur- 
nished skin glitters with metallic brilliancy. From 
its beauty and utility in the destmction of insects, it 
might be kept with advantage in vineries or green- 
houses. The general colour of this elegant little 
species is a 'rich metallic green, fading into a paler 
or yellowish tint on the under parts ; the back and 
head are sometimes minutely freckled with black, 
occasionally with yellow, and a blue tinge not 
unfrequently pervades the head. 

A larger species, attaining to sixteen inches or 
more in length, also remarkable for the beauty of its 
colouring, is a native of the southern provinces of 
Europe and the north of Africa. It is the Eyed 
Lizard (Lacerta ocellata), so called from being orna- 
mented with round spots of gold and blue, and with 
rings and irregular markings of black on a bright- 
green ground. In its actions it is extremely prompt 
and rapid, and as it darts along its colours glisten 
with metallic lustre in the sun. When driven to act 
upon the defensive, it manifests great spirit, attack- 
ing its assailant with determined resolution ; and 
when it fastens on the muzzle of a dog, it will suffer 
itself to be killed before it will let go its hold. It 
makes deep burrows at the roots of trees, under 
hedges, and in vineyards sloping to the sun, always 
preferring a south or south-east aspect. Frequently 
it excavates a deep retreat in layers of sand or other 
material easily worked, separating two beds of hard 
calcareous rock. 

Like all the true lizards, this species is quick-eyed 
and wary, and disappears within its burrow with 
wonderful celerity. 

2187. — The Six-Lined Taciitdbomus 
(Tachi/dromus sex-linealus, Daudin). The genus 
Tachydromus, which contains only two species as 
yet known, is distinguished by the peculiar form of 
the papillae of the tongue, which resemble folds 
having the figure of chevrons enclosed one within 
the other with the summit directed forwards ; the ! 
head is pyramidally quadrangular, the figure slender, ( 
and the tail of extraordinary length, far exceeding j 
in proportion that of any other true lizard. The j 
tongue is not sheathed at the base ; it is moderately I 
extensible, and divided at the tip into two flattened < 
filaments. The throat collar is squamous, dente- i 
lated, and not very definite. The under parts are 
covered with imbricated scales, smooth or keeled. 

The present species is a native of China, Cochin 
China, and Java: it is rapid, active, and serpentine 
in its movements, with the general habits of the 
lacertine group. The general colour above is olive, 
and on each side of the back, from the angle of the 



95 



occiput to the base of the tail, runs a beautiful white 
stripe between two lines of black ; those parts of the 
sides of the neck and body which are granulated are 
prettily sprinkled with small black dots, each with a 
white centre ; the other regions of the sides of the 
neck and trunk are of a bluish tint with golden re- 
flexions. A line of black runs between the nostril 
and the eye, and two others of the same colour, 
separated by a white stripe, extend longitudinally 
on the temple. The under parts altogether of the 
head and body are of a pure mother-oi-pearl white. 
The tail is sometimes simply olive ; sometimes it 
presents the colour of burnished copper or of gold 
with a brilliant lustre: Length about a foot, of 
which the tail measures three-fourths. (See Dume- 
ril and Bibron, 'Hist. Nat. des Rept.') 

2188.— The Ophiops 

(Ophiops elegans). The principal character of the 
genus Ophiops, of which we know at present only 
one species, consists in the absence of eyelids. The 
tongue is arrow-headed in shape, moderately long, 
notched at the end, and covered with imbricated 
squamiform papilla;. There is no scaly collar under 
the neck; the ventral laraellas are quadrilateral; 
there are femoral pores; the toes are carinated be- 
low. Fig. 2189 represents— a, the Head of Ophiops, 
in profile ; b, as seen from above, showing the ar- 
rangement of the plates; c, the throat and lower 
jaw ; d, the lower part of the under surface, showing 
the form of the ventral scales, and the line of pores 
along each thigh ; e, the under surface of one of the 
posterior toes. 

The Ophiops is a beautiful active little lizard, of 
slender figure, found in south-eastern Europe,- and 
the adjacent parts of Asia. Specimens have been 
brought from Smyrna, and others from the environs 
ofBakou. Its general colouraboveisolive or bronze, 
and two pale yellow lines run along each side of 
the trunk, separated by two series of black spots, 
which in young individuals are small and distinct, 
but blend more together in adults. All the under 
parts are white. 

Family CHALCID^ (CHALCIS, SAUROPHIS, 
SCHELTOPUSIC, &c.). 

The Chalcidae, or " Cyclosaures " of Dume'ril and 
Bibron, comprise a series of forms presenting us 
with a gradual approximation, in external charac- 
ters at least, to the serpents. Some of them indeed, 
as Pseudopus and Ophisaurus, Cuvier places in his 
first section of the Ophidia, or Snakes; and the 
Amphisbaena at the commencement of the " Vrais 
Serpents." Following the arrangement of MM. 
Dumfiril and Bibron, now generally adopted, at least 
as far as the principles go, we shall give the cha- 
racters, as detailed by them, by which the family of 
the Chalcida; are distinguished. The body is usu- 
ally cylindrical, extremely elongated or snake-like, 
sometimes destitute of limbs, and mostly with the 
limbs only little developed: there is in general no 
distinct neck between the head and trunk, which 
latter imperceptibly merges into the tail. The skin 
exhibits traces of rings or of verticellations, and in 
most there is a fold of skin between the belly and 
sides ; the head is covered with scutcheons or poly- 
gonal plates : the teeth are not implanted into the 
maxillary bones, but afiixed to their internal mar- 
gin ; the tongue is free, but slightly extensile, broad, 
and covered with filiform or with scale-like papillse ; 
it is notched at the point, and not retracted within a 
sheath. 

The group thus characterized is divided into 
Ptychopleura, which, besides being scaled, are dis- 
tinguished by a lateral fold of skin, and into Glyp- 
toderma* with the skin apparently naked, divided 
into square or card-like divisions in regular order, 
and marked with circles at regular intervals ; the 
skin of each card-like division is of a peculiar firm 
texture, as if tubercular. The eyes, moreover, are 
destitute of eyelids. 

Among the Ptychopleura one genus only is en- 
tirely destitute of limbs, namely, Ophisaurus, which 
would be a serpent were it not that there are true 
eyelids and an auditory orifice, while the jaws are 
consolidated, and the tongue not sheathed. 

In the genus Pseudopus there are only the rudi- 
ments of the hind-limbs. In Gerrhosaus, Trilobo- 
notus, &c., the limbs are well developed, and there 
are femoral pores. These are lacertine in their 
aspect. 

To the Glyptoderma belong the Chirotes, a snake- 
like reptile with only anterior limbs, a native of 
Mexico, the Amphisbaenas, and the allied genus 
Lepidosternon, and Trogonophes, in which the teeth, 
as an exception, are implanted in the trenchant 
ridge of these. These are all destitute of limbs. 

We shall first attend to our examples of the 
Ptychopleura. 

* Glyptoderma, from 7XtmToy, sculptured, and 5epjua, akin ; 
Ptychopleura, from irrvf, wrvxos, a fold, and ir> '"po, the side. 



2190, 2191.-THE FouB-TOED Snake-Lizabd 
(Saurop/us tetradactylus). In this snake-like lizard 
ttiere are four minute limbs, which are furnished 
each with four toes ; there are femoral pores • the 
head is covered above with plates ; the scales of the 
upper surface are striated, with a small keel in the 
middle of each ; there are six longitudinal series of 
ventral lamellae ; a fold runs along each side. 

This singularreptile is a native of the southern 
districts of Africa; its movemente, as might be in- 
terred from its figure, are completely serpent-like, 
but of Its habits little is known. 

The top of the head is yellow, sprinkled with 
Drown ; all the scales of the upper parts are yellow 
with a posterior margin of brown ; the sides of the 
mouth are white ; two black square spots are be- 
low the eye and two before the ear. Under parts 
whitish With the two figures are shown enlarged 
views of the head and limbs. . 

2192. — The Angui.ve Lizard 

CChamcBsaura anguina). In the present genus the 
limbs are still more reduced, and are mere stylets, 
terminating in a single toe. The body is covered 
with rhomboidal, carinated, and imbricated scales 
producing a coarse rasp-like surface. The head is 
covered above with plates. This reptile is a native 
ot southern Africa, and has been brought from the 
Cape of Good Hope. The general colour above is 
brown, with a narrow streak of yellow down the 
middle line, spreading over the sides, where it be- 
comes paler, and also over the under surface of the 
body. 

2193.— The Schei.toplsic 
{Pseudopus Pallasii). The transition from the 
previous reptiles, with limbs imperfect and scarcely 
developed, to the present genus, in which there are 
no fore-limbs, and the hind-limbs are mere minute 
scaly appendages, is very easy. We have here a 
completely snake-like body, which is serpentine in 
all its movements ; there are indeed the rudiments 
of pelvic bones, as seen at Fig. 2194 ; a a, showing 
the rudiments of the hinder extremities. 

In this genus the tongue is thin and like an arrow- 
head, bifid at the point, and covered both with 
villous and also with large notched papillae. The 
teeth are strong, and the palate is lurnished with 
them also, but they are there of small size. A deep 
furrow runs down each side of the body. The eye- 
lids are perfect. 

The Scheltopusic, which was first described by 
Pallas under the title of Lacerta apoda, measures 
about eighteen inches in length, and is of a reddish 
chestnut colour dotted with black. The iris is gold- 
en green, the pupil black. The young are greyish 
above with cross-marks of brown, whitish grey 
below. 

This serpent-like lizard is a native of northern 
Africa bordering the Mediterranean, of the Morea, 
Dalmatia, and southern Siberia. Scheltopusic is 
the name given to it by the natives of the desert of 
Naryn near the Volga. Its favourite haunts are 
wooded valleys, and places covered with brushwood 
and thick vegetation, affording it secure conceal- 
nient. It feeds on insects, small lizards, nestling 
birds, and chases its prey like a snake, darting along 
in a series of sinuous flexures. When alarmed it 
instantly plunges beneath the dense brushwood and 
is lost. This species was found to be common in 
the Peloponnesus by the party conducting the ' Voy- 
age Scientifique en Moiee.' The first discovered 
was observed basking in the rays of the vernal sun, 
and had evidently but lately emerged from its 
winter retreat. It was instantly attacked and killed, 
but great was the surprise of its destroyers, who 
supposed it to be venomous, when they found it 
destitute of poison-fangs. 

Subsequently many individuals were caught alive, 
and kept in rooms, where they soon became recon- 
ciled to the captivity, evincing a quiet inoffensive 
disposition. They were fed upon hard-boiled eggs ; 
but on one occasion a captive .scheltopusic got ac- 
cess to a nest of young birds, which it quickly de- 
molished, doubtless with considerable relish. 

2195. — The Glass-Snake 
(Ophisaurus ventralis). In this reptile we have 
not even the rudiment of limbs, but from the points 
already referred to, namely, the presence of eye- 
lids, the consolidation of the lower jaw, the auditory 
orifice, and the unsheathed tongue, snake-like as it 
is, it does not belong to the Ophidia. There are 
several rows of palatal teeth. The maxillary teeth 
are simple. 

The name of Glassy Snake (Glassy Fragile, Pen- 
nant) has been given to this reptile from its ex- 
treme brittleness, the slightest touch causing it to 
snap asunder. It is a native of Carolina and the 
southern provinces of North America, and its man- 
ners closely resemble those of the scheltopusic. It 
frequent spots abounding in vegetation, and feeds 
on insects, small reptiles, frogs, &c. According to 




aifcS.— Optiiop*. 




i;ii5.— Gl»«-8ti«lte. 





^IM.— Asgaine liianU 




S\96.— Heads of Gla»8iu]M, 




2190.— Fooi-toed Snake-Lizud. 




3193.— Schgltopiuie. 




S19<.— Pelis of Scheltop««ic. 



S191.- FooMotd Snake-Liiaid. 



06 




2196.— Dusky Amphisbenw. 



2310.— Common Zonunis. 



JSOS.^Officinal Scink. 






^06.— Common Sep*. 



'2201.— Officinal Sdsk. 



£207.— Slow worm. 




S2ni, — Habon ju. 

No. 63. Vol. II. 




3t09.— Hewl of AamUu. 
[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 




S:08 Painted Acontlts. 



97 



98 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[SCINKS. 



Catesbv it appears earlier in the *prinsf tlian any of | 
the snake-tribe, and is numerou* in sandy woods. j 

Fig. 219C represents two heads of this reptile, n | 
and b, of which the latter is depicted with the sin- 
gularly-fornied tongue tx\>o»ed. 

The glass snake is subject to considerable varia- 
tions of colour ; M. Bibron enumerates four varie- 
ties ; the first is marked above with alternate 
longitudinal lines of black and yellowish, the under 
parts being white. 

The second has the scales of the sides and neck 
black ; those of the upper surface and tail brown, 
w ith a spot of black, and a streak of greenish yellow. 
The head is marbled with yellow on a black ground. 
Under jiarts white. 

The third is chestnut with white spots, almost en- 
tirely encircled by black, generally arranged in trans- 
verse bands ; the sides are mostly black, the edges 
of each scale being more or less spotted with 
whitish or reddish. Under parts pale orange. 

The fourth is of a yellowish grey above, with a 
broad black median line from the back of the head 
to the end of the tail ; while on the sides five more 
slender black lines alternate with white. Sides of 
the head and neck are mottled with white and 
black. 

Ctttesby de.scribes the colouring as yellowish 
preen, spotted with black above. The tail is longer 
than the body, and the head is very small. " A 
small blow with a stick," he observes, "will cause 
the Jjody to separate not only at the place struck, 
i)ut al two or three other places also ; the muscles 
being aitieulated in a singular manner quite through 
ihe vertebr*." 

We shall now turn to the section Glyptoderma, 
the general distinguishing characters of which we 
have already detailed. 

We may here add that the mode in which the 
teelh are implanted varies in this group. In most 
they are affixed by the side to the internal face of 
the maxillary bones; in others they are fixed on 
the ridge or summit of the bones, as in the genus 
Trogonophis. 

2197. — The Channelled Chirotes 

(Chiroles cnnaUculatus). Lacerta lumbricoides, 
Shaw ; Chamiesaura propus, Schneider ; Bimanus 
propus, Oppel ; Bipes eanaliculatus, Bonnat. 

These singular animals, says M. Bibron, would be 
Amphisbaenas, were they not provided with a 
sternum and two fore limbs— the only differences, 
in fact, by which the genera are distinguished : the 
body is nearly cylindrical, being somewhat flattened j 
on Its under surface ; the head is of the same cir- i 
cumference, the former having the muzzle and 
borders of the mouth covered with plates, the only 
portions of the animal where the skin is not marked [ 
by depressions, dividing it into little quadrilateral 1 
compartments disposed in rings. The fore limbs, 
which alone exist, are placed at a short distance 
behind the head, and spring from the under surface of 
the neck ; they are short, moderately robust, and ter- 
minated by five toes, of which four are well deve- 
loped, and armed with robust, curved, and pointed 
claws ; the fifth is a simple scaly tubercle, destitute 
of a nail. Along the body, on each side, is a sort of 
suture descending from the shoulder to the origin of 
the tail ; at the lower part of the abdomen is a row of 
small pores. The teeth are strong, conical, simple, 
and slightly curved backwards; the nostrils are 
lateral ; the eye is very small ; the muzzle arched ; 
the tongue horny al the tip, and but little extensile. 

This singular reptile is a native of Mexico, and 
measures eight or ten inches in length. The colour 
of the upper surface is yellow, each little square 
compartment having a mark of chestnut ; the under 
parts are vihitc. It was first described by Lacepede 
under the title " Le Canneld." With respect to its 
habits, they are most probably subterranean, like 
those of the Amphisbsena ; but on these points 
nothing appears to be definitely known. Fig. 2197 
is accompanied by a delineation in outline of the 
Head and one of the Paws. There are no eyelids. 

2198.— The Dcskt Amphisb.«na 

(Amphlsbama fiiliffinosa). The genus Amphisbsena 
diffei-s from Chirotes principally in the absence of 
limbs; the head aud body are of uniform thickness, 
and the tail terminates bluntly; so that at a first 
glance it is not very easy to distinguish between the 
head and tail, more especially as the minute eyes 
are buried, and only to be detected through the 
horny plate that covers them, as little black dots, in 
which neither iris nor pupil is perceptible. In some 
species, where the plates are more thick, they are 
scarcely to be observed. It is from this similarity 
of the head and tail that the natives of South Amej ica 
considered this reptile to have two heads, one at 
each extremity ; and that if it was cut in two, so far 
from being killed, each distinct portion would con- 
tinue to live, and that the two heads would mutually 
seek each other, and the bodies become reunited as 



if nothing had happened. Stedraan, in his ' History 
of Surinam,' says, •• Another snake which I observed 
here is about three feet long, and unnulated with 
diflerent colours. It is called Amphisbaena, from the 
supposition of its having two heads : and the truth 
is, from its cylindrical form the head and tail so 
much resemble each other that the error is almost 
pardonable ; besides which the eyes are nearly im- 
perceptible. This is the snake which, supposed blind, 
and vulgarly said to be fed by the large ants (ter- 
mites), is in this country honoured with the name 
of King of the Kmmets. The flesh of the Amphis- 
bsena, dried and reduced to a tine powder, is con- 
fidently administered as a sovereign and infallible 
remedy in all cases of dislocation and broken bones ; 
it being very naturally inferred that an animal which 
has the power of healing an entire amputation in its 
own case should at least be able to cure a simple 
fracture in the case of another." AVe may here 
observe that the term Apiphisbsena («/*?''», utrinque ; 
^/w, incedo), though the animal has not two heads, 
is correct, as it is capable of crawling with the head 
or tail foremost with equal facility. 

The head of the amphisbaena is blunt and short, 
and the muzzle resembles a small arched beak : 
sometimes it is rounded ; it is covered with plates ; 
the skin generally is divided into quadrilateral com- 
partments disposed in circles round the body ; and 
in some species a furrow runs down the middle of 
the back, and also along each side. At the lower 
part of the abdomen is a range of pores. 

The specimens of amphisbaena which we have seen 
alive were dull and inanimate, with no grace or 
activity in their movements; they crawled slowly 
about, and, when handled, languidly twisted their 
bodies and opened their mouths, but made no 
attempt to bile ; their appearance was far from 
being attractive. One of these animals, kept alive 
some time since in the Gardens of the Zoological 
Society, took milk very freely, and subsisted on it 
for six months. 

The Dusky Amphisbaena is a native of Brazil and 
Cayenne, where it bores in the soft earth like a 
worm, working its way with considerable despatch ; 
it is harmless and inofiensive, living principally on 
ants and their larvae and termites, and is often found 
in the mounds raised by these insects, or in their 
subterranean habitations. It measures nearly two 
feet in length, and the eyes are apparent as black 
dots. Its general colour is dusky brown. 

MM. Dumeiil and Bibron enumerate ten species 
ij of amphisbaena, of which one is a native of Guinea, 
and one of North Africa, Spain, and Portugal ; the 
rest are American. Besides, there are three species 
separated into a genus termed Lepidosternon, also 
natives of South America. 

Family SCINCID.E (SCINKS or SKINKS). 

The present family, " Les Lcpidosaures " of Du- 
nieril and Bibron, presents us with characters dis- 
tinct from those of our last ; but through a series of 
forms it also conducts us to the serpents, the body 
becoming snake-like, and the limbs disappearing, 
till at length they are lost. The transition forms 
from the more typical genera are Evesia, in which 
the limbs are reduced to little footless appendages ; 
one species is known, a native of India — Scelotes, 
in which there are no anterior limbs, and the pos- 
terior are divided into two small toes ; one species 
(Sc. Linnaei, Bibron ; Anguis bipes, Linn.) is known ; 
it is a native of South Africa; Hysteropus (Bipes, 
Cuv.), presenting us with one species, of snake-like 
lorm, ii native of New Holland ; it has two nidi- 
mentary posterior limbs, in the shape of little flat 
appendages. In the Pygopus Cariococca, a snake- 
like reptile of South America, there are only rudi- 
mentary hinder limbs as in the preceding — minute 
flattened appendages. We then come to the genera 
Anguis (Blindworm), Acontias, and Typhlops, in 
which the limbs have disappeared, and the figure is 
serpentiform. To the general character of the 
Sauria the Family Scincidae adds many peculiari- 
ties. The head is covered with large plates, of an 
angular figure, with the edges fitting together ; the 
body, generally, is clad in scales of variable size and 
form, resembling a coat of mail, and arranged in 
quincuncial order, and overlapping each other like 
the pointed or rounded tiles of a roof; or like those- 
of a carp, or of other osseous fishes. The tongue 
is free, fleshy, rather flat, notched at the tip, and 
covered by scaly papillae : the abdomen is cy- 
lindiical, without lateral folds, and clad with scales 
usually arranged in the same manner as those of the 
back. There is little or no distinction between the 
neck and body. We may here observe, with respect 
to the large angular plates of the head, that they do 
not occur in the Chameleons, the Geckos, Iguanas, 
or Varans, but are met with in the Teidae, the true 
lizards, and the Chalcidae ; but, then, in the Teidae 
and true lizards, the scales of the under parts are 
arranged ditferently to those of the back ; and in the 
Chalcidae, the scales are not only disposed so as to 
form circles or transverse bands, but a lateral fold is 



carried from the head to the origin of the tail. Tlie 
limbs in the Scincida-, when present, are short, and 
generally the whole surface of the scaling is smooth 
and polished. This group is found in the most 
arid districts of the hot and temperate regions of 
every portion of the globe : Europe, indeed, pos- 
sesses but a limited number of species, which, be 
it observed, are not restricted in their geographical 
range to that quarter of the globe, but are far more 
widely distributed. The greatest number belong to 
Australia and the Polynesian Islands. We may now 
direct our attention to some of the forms of this ex- 
tensive family. 

2199. — The Cochin-Chixa Tropidophowts 

{Tropidophorus CociticmensU, Bibr.). Leposoma 
Cocincinensis, Cuv. ; Tropidosaurus monfanus. Gray. 
In the genus Tropidophorusthe tongue is notched 
and squamous; the teeth are simple and cylindrical, 
none are palatal ; the auditory orifices are closed by 
a tympanic membrane; the feet are all five-toed, 
and armed with slightly-compressed claws; the tail 
is compressed and keeled; the scales of the upper 
parts are lozenge-shaped, each having a raised 
median carination, prolonged into a point behind. 
The species figured is a native of Cochin-China. 
Its general colour above is yellowish brown, with a 
tinge of olive, crossed with deep brown bars in the 
form of the letter X, in succession. The tail is 
spotted : the flanks present a row of white dots ; 
under parts white. I>etter a, represents the head 
viewed from above ; b, the head in profile, with the 
mouth open to show the tongue. 

2201, 2202.— The Ofhcinal Scink 

(Scinais officinalis). El Adda of Bruce ; Skink, 
Shaw's Barbary., i'lyyh or 2«iy«( of the Greeks. 

In the genu's Seincus the tongue is notched and 
scaly ; the teeth are conical, simple, and blunt ; 
there are teeth on the palate, which is longitudinally 
grooved ; auditory orifices operculated ; muzzle 
wedge-shaped ; limbs four, with five toes on each ; 
tail conical and pointed ; general scaling smooth, 
glossy, and fish-like. 

The officinal Scink, of which there arc three or 
four varieties, is a native of Arabia, Northern Africa, 
Egypt, Syria, and Abyssinia. It occurs also ia 
Senegal. 

In the IGth century this lizard was generally be- 
lieved to be endowed with wonderful medicinal vir- 
tues, and consequently was an object of commerce ; 
it was one of the most approved remedies in eases of 
debility, and was regarded as an infallible renovator 
of a shattered constitution. This supposition is of 
very ancient date ; for Pliny states that these Scinci 
were imported into Rome in a salted state (asBelon 
says they were in his time, 1551), and that their heads 
and feet were taken in white wine. He also cites 
Apelles as an authority for their efiicacy in the case 
of wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows. We need 
not say that this lizard no longer maintains a place 
among the articles of the materia medica. Indeed, 
in Egypt and Arabia its reputation is gone. M. 
Alexandre Lefebvre, who collected, says M. Bibron, 
a number of individuals of this species during an 
excursion in 1828 into the oasis of Bahrieh. informs 
us that this lizard " is met with on the hillocks of 
fine light sand which the south wind accumulates 
at the foot of the hedges which border the cultivated 
lands, and of the tamarisks which strive to vegetate 
on the confines of the desert. There it may be seen 
tranquilly basking in the rays of a burning sun, cr 
cha-sing from time to time the Graphypteri, or other 
coleopterous insects which pass within its range. 
It mns with considerable quickness, and when me- 
naced buries itself in the sand with singular ra- 
pidity, excavating in a few instants a burrow of 
many feet in depth. When taken it endeavours to 
escape, but beyond this neither attempts to bite, nor 
to defend itself with its claws." 

In all specimens of this reptile the lower and 
lateral parts of the head, body, and tail are silvery 
white, more or less pure. The upper surface varies 
in markings. M. Bibron enumerates the following: 
Var. «.— General colour of the neck, back, and 
tail, yellow, or clear silveiy grey, mixed with brown 
or blackish, which forms great spots dilated trans- 
versely, most frequently putting on the shape of 
transverse bands, the number of which is commonly 
seven or eight. 

Var. b. — A yellow tint spread over the surface of 
the cranium. Neck, back, and a great part of the 
tail chestnut-brown, sprinkled with very small 
obscure whitish spots, two or three on each scale. 
Across the back five or six large white bands, with 
an irregularly-dilated black spot at each of their 
extremities. These spots are not situated on the 
back, but on the most elevated part of the lateral 
regions of the trunk. 

Vnr. c. — All the scales of the neck, back, and 
first half of the upper surface of the tail silvery 
grey, widely radiated with white, with one or two 
brown spots on the posterior border of the radiations. 



SCINKS.] 



MUSEU3I OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



In Fig. 2202, a exhibits the fore-foot of this rep- 
tile seen from above. 

2203. — The Capisteated Sphenops 
(^Sphenops capistratus). Head of. 

We fi2;me only the head of this sinRidar lizard, 
which, as Ikr as is ascertained, appears to be re- 
stricted to Esrypt, where, according to Lefebvre, it is 
very common in the oasis of Bahrieh, at Labou, 
Quasr, and Uahoueit, and is to be seen in abun- 
dance on the ridges of rice-grounds, at the foot of 
hedges, and about the ruts of the miry roads of vil- 
lages. It burrows so superficially tliat the slightest 
disturbance made by the feet of the passer-by lays 
open its retreat. It is very active in its movements, 
but when captured does not attempt to bite. It is 
a very remarkable circumstance, that an embalmed 
individual of this species was found by M. Lelebvre 
himself in the environs of Thebes. This he gave to 
M. Cocteau, who drew up an interesting memoir, 
which he was about to publish when death inter- 
rupted his labours. It is, however, given by MI\I. 
Dum6iil and Bibron. A similarly embalmed Sphe- 
nops is in the Egyptian IVIuseum of the Louvre. 

2204. — Sacra's Dipoglossus 

{Dipoglossits SagrtB), Head of. 

We figure the head of this scincoid lizard so as to 
show the form of the tongue cleft at its apex, and 
covered above with papillae like little scales. 

This reptile is a native of Cuba, where it was dis- 
covered by M. Ramon de la Sagra. It lives in cool 
and humid places, where the soil is light ; and is 
extremely quick and active in its movements. Nei- 
ther in this nor the genus Sphenops are there any 
palatal teeth. 

220.5.— The TJabouya 

{Gongylns ocellatus). The ocellated Scink, Ma- 
bouya Scink of Shaw ; Tiliqua of Malta, Griff, 
'Animal Kingdom,' Cuv. ; Lacepede"s Gallywasp, 
Gray ; Scincus ocellatus, Meyer. 

This little scincoid lizard is found along the shores 
of the Mediterranean, and is common in Sicily, 
Sardinia, and Malta ; it occurs also in Egypt, and in 
the Island of Teneriffe. Dry and slightly elevated 
spots are its favourite abodes, and it conceals itself 
in the sand or under stones. Its food consists of 
insects, which it seizes alter the manner of the true 
lizards; and though its form does not promise much 
agility, its movements are quicker than might be 
expected. When caught, it does not attempt to 
bite, but merely struggles to escape. It is subject 
to great variation of colouring, but is generally 
marked above by ocellated spots of black with a 
yellowish centre. 

2206.— The Common Seps 

(Seps chalci(ks). Seps tridactylus, Gerv., Gray, and 
others. 

In this form we see a decided approximation to 
the limbless groups of the present family : the body 
is elongated and slender; the limbs are very short 
and small, and furnished with only three minute 
toes ; the under eyelid is transparent ; the teeth are 
simple, none on the palate ; muzzle conical ; tongue 
flat squamous, notched at the point. 

This smooth serpentiform scink is found in the 
south of France, in Italy and Spain, in the islands 
of the Mediterranean, and on the Mediterranean 
shores of Africa. It lives on worms, little snails 
and slugs, spiders, and all sorts of insects. It is 
viviparous, like our viviparous lizard or the slow- 
worm. 

2207. — The Slowwoem 

{Anguisfragilis). Blindworm, Head of. 

The Slowworm, as a type of the genus Anguis, 
may be thus characterized : — Body and tail cylin- 
drical and obtuse ; all the scales smooth, glossy, 
imbricate, nearly equal on the upper and under 
parts ; head covered with nine larger plates ; limbs 
reduced to mere rudiments beneath the skin ; the 
mouth is small ; the teeth minute, none on the 
palate ; the eyes are small but brilliant. 

The slowworm is found over the greater part of 
Europe and the adjacent parts of Asia ; and it is 
common in many parts of England, frequenting 
copses, orchards, old mouldering walls, and banks, 
where it delights to bask in the sun ; it is a sluggish, 
timid creature, and when handled, even roughly, 
seldom attempts to bite : if it does, its jaws are too 
small and feeble and its teeth too minute to inflict 
a wound ; scarcely indeed does it make any impres- 
sion, and the opinion that it is venomous is as ab- 
surd as it is erroneous. Let those who believe it 
put it themselves to the test, examine the creature's 
teeth, try their effect on any small animal, and not 
give up their common sense to the assertions of the 
ignorant. I 

According to I^treille, the food of the slowworm 

consists of worms and beetles, to which it adds frogs, 

small rats, and even toads ; but this is a mistake : 

the undilafable mouth of the slowworm is incapable 

Vol. II. 



99 



of taking in such prey ; it could no more engulf a 
frog or rat than could the little viviparous lizard ; 
it feeds to some extent, perhaps, on insects, but 

niore particularly on worms and slugs, especially 
the latter; as was witnessed by Mr. George Daniel, 
whose account of the habits of the blindworm, in 
Mr. Bennet's edition of White's ' Selborne,' is very 
interesting. "A blindworm'' he writes,-' that I 
kept alive for nine weeks, would, when touched, 
turn and bite, altlioueh not very sharply ; its bite 
was not sufficient to draw blood, but it always re- 
tained its hold until released. It drank sparingly of 
milk, raising the head when drinking. It fed upon 
the little white slug so common in fields and gar- 
dens, eating six or seven of them one after the 
other. It invariably took them in one position. 
Elevating its head slowly above its victim, it would 
suddenly seize the slug by the middle, in the same 
way that a dog will generally seize a rat by the 
loins. It would then hold it thus sometimes for 
more than a minute, when it would pass its prey 
through its jaws, and swallow the slug head fore- 
most. It refused the larger slugs, ami would not 
touch either young frogs or mice. Snakes kept in 
the same cage took both frogs and mice. The 
blindworm avoided the water ; the snakes on the 
contrary coiled themselves in a pan containing 
water which was put into the cage, and appeared to 
delight in it. The blindworm was a remiirkably 
fine one, measuring fifteen inches in length; it cast 
its slough while in my possession ; the i:kin came off 
in separate pieces, the peeling of the head being 
completed the last." In a state of nature, however, 
the cuticle, as in the snake, is shed in one entire 
everted piece. We have alluded to the brittleness 
of the tail of the viviparous lizard: the same brittle- 
ness characterizes the whole body of the slowworm. 
When alarmed or irritated, it forcibly contracts all 
its muscles, and breaks asunder upon the slightest 
attempt to bend it, or a trifling blow. It was from 
this circumstance that Linnaeus gave it the name of 
fragilis. Like the other reptiles of our island, the 
blindworm hybernates, making a burrow under de- 
cayed masses of vegetation, in the soft earth, work- 
ing its way to a considerable depth, the glossy 
smoothness of the scales facilitating its passage. In 
such burrows, Latreille assures us, it usually lives, 
coming up for the purpose of breathing, when it 
raises its head out of its hole, ready to retreat on the 
appearance of danger. Even in the winter it some- 
times does this, though snow may be on the ground, 
if the sun be shining with a warm though transient 
gleam. We have often in summer seen it basking 
in old hedge-rows, and about crumbling old walls : 
it is easily captured. 

As is the case with the viviparous lizard and the 
viper, the slowworm produces living young, the eggs 
being hatched just previously to the birth of the 
offspring they enclosed. This takes place in June 
or July. The young vary from six to twelve in 
number, and when first born are not two inches 
long; they soon, however, become active, and creep 
about in search of minute slugs and worms. 

It is from the smallness of its eyes that this rep- 
tile has received the name of blindworm; they are, 
however, bright and quick, and defended by move- 
able eyelids ; the minute teeth are slightly hooked ; 
the tongue is rather broad, not very free, nor bifid, 
as in the snake, but merely notched at the tip. The 
general colour is lustrous silvery grey with a tinge 
of brown ; a dark line runs along the spine, and ob- 
scure lines or rows of spots are carried down the 
sides ; there is, however, considerable variety. The 
under parts are of a bluish-black, with white reticu- 
lations. The young are of a pale yellowish-grey 
above, black beneath ; there is a little black dot on 
the top of the head, and another at the back of the 
head, whence a narrow black line is continued down 
the spine. 

The adults measure from twelve to fifteen inches, 
but the proportionate length of the tail part varies, 
sometimes being not half the length of the body, 
sometimes nearly equalling it. This difference may 
in a great measure depend on sex, for in the lizards 
the body of the female is proportionally longer 
than that of the male. 

2208. — The Painted Acostias 

{Acontias meleagris). Anguis meleagris of Gmelin, 
Shaw, and others ; Javelin Snake. 

Releningto Fig. 2209, a represents the head as 
seen from above; 6, the same in profile; c, the same ' 
with the mouth open to show the tongue. [ 

In the genus Acontias the muzzle, which is coni- ! 
cal, is sheathed in a large single case or horny 
mask, on each side of which open the nostrils; the j 
tongue is flat, arrow-headed, squamous, and scarcely ] 
notched at the tip ; teeth small, blunt; none in the 
palate. There is only one eyelid, namely, the 
lower. The tail is blunt. Scales smooth ; limbs 
none. 

The Painted Acontias, which is allied to our 
blindworm, which it resembles in habits, is a native 



of South Africa, and is very common at the Cape of 
Good Hope. '^ 

The general colour of this reptile is chestnut- 
brown, the margin of every scale being of a very 
light yellow, producing a prettily mottled appear- 
ance. The abdomen is white. 



2210.— The Uommox Zonurus 

(Zomirusiirisciin), Cordyle Lizard, Shaw : Cordylug 
griseus, Cuv. 
I In our notice of the ptychopleurous chalcidiB, we 
I omitted this singular reptile, which is a native of 
j South Africa and Senegal. The genus is thus de- 
[ fined by Mr. Gray:-Form lizard-like; tympanic 
membrane exposed ; legs four. Femoral pores dis- 
tinct ; head depressed, broad behind ; supra orbital 
plate expanded. Tail depressed with whorls of 
large sciuare-Ueeled spinous scales. Back with 
keeleil subsiiinous scales, those of the under surface 
smooth. Toes five on each loot. "The tongue is 
an ow-head shaped ; free anteriorly, scarcely notched, 
and velvety. No teeth on the palate. 

In this lizard the head is covered with large 
plates ; the scales of the upper surface are quadri- 
lateral, slightly imbricated from without inwards, 
forming close transverse bands ; a furrow runs along 
the lower region of each side. 

This species, the rough-scaled Cape lizard of 
Petiver, is very common at the Cape of Good Hope. 
ft varies in colour, but is generally yellowish on the 
back, sides, and tail. The outer parts are white. 
"The general form is thick and depressed, and the 
limbs are robust. It is not very rapid in its move- 
ments. 

Before leaving the Sauria we must advert to some 
extinct forms, which at some remote epoch tenanted 
our globe, realizing the wildest dreams of poetic 
imagination, and forcibly impress upon our minds 
the fact of the great difi'erence between many beings 
which once enjoyed life and light, and those which 
after the lapse of ages occupy their places. We 
shall first draw attention to the Pterodactyles. 
These extraordinary animals, which were regarded 
by Blumenbach as birds, and by Professor Hejmann 
of Strasburg as intermediate between mammalia, 
and birds, were ascertained by Cuvier to belong to 
the Sauria, or reptiles : and his views have been 
since amply confirmed. " They are," he says, " rep- 
tiles, of which the principal characters are a very 
short tail, a very long neck, the muzzle much elon- 
gated and armed with sharp teeth; the legs also 
long, and one of the toes of the anterior extremity 
excessively elongated, having probably served for 
the attachment of a membrane adapted for support- 
ing them in the air; besides this there are four (or 
three) other toes of the ordinary size, terminated by 
hooked claws." The remains of these strange 
beings occur in the lithographic limestone of the 
Jura formation at Aichstiidt and Solenhofen, in the 
lias of Lyme Regis, and the oolite at Stonesfield, 
Banz, &c. With them are mixed the remains of 
fishes, Crustacea, and large insects, as libellulae and 
coleoptera. Eight species are ascertained, varying 
in size from a snipe to that of a cormorant; viz., 
Pt. longirostrjs (Solenhofen), P. Brevirostris (Solen- 
hofen), P. crassirostris (Solenhofen), P. medius 
(Miinster), P. Miinsteri (Solenhofen), P. macronyx 
(t.yme Regis, and Banz in Germany), P. grandis 
(Solenhofen ?), and P. Bucklandi (Stonesfield). 

Our pictorial specimens are P. longirostris, P. 
brevirostris, and P. crassirostris. 

2211. — The Lo.ng-Muzzled Pterodactylk ' 
{PterodacUjlus longirostris). In all these Pterodac- 
tyles it will be observed that, while the head as a 
whole is very large in proportion to the body, the 
cranial cavity is very contracted ; the orbits are 
large, and extensive facial apertures or hollows- 
diminish much from the weight of the muzzle. Irii 
all the neck is very long, but particularly in the- 
present species ; the vertebrae being very elongated 
individually, with the exception of the first two. 
At the same time they are strong, and the head, 
neck, and jaws were no doubt moved by voluminous 
muscles. The length of the jaws armed anteriorly 
with sharp teeth is extraordinary ; the lower jaw is 
slender. The vertebral column of the back and loins 
is stout, the tail short, and the ribs slender. This 
species equalled a woodcock in size, but the extent 
of its wing-membranes, from the length of the outer 
finger of the fore-limbs, must have been very great, 
and it may easily be imagined what force of muscle 
was required for agitating them. 

2212. — The Short-Muzzled Pterodactylb 

{Pt brevirostris). In this small species the muzzle 
is short, and bird-like in its outline, which resembles 
that of the head of a goose, and the neck is accord- 
ingly abbreviated. 

2213. — The Thick-Muzzled Pterodactvle 

{Pt. crassirostris). In this species the muzzle is 
moderate and thick; the head exceeds the neck in 

O 2 




£ 
•8 

1 

i 

f 






22 12. —Short muzzletl Pterodactyle 



!S:4.-Thlck-lui»il«.l Pterodactyls: iMtored. 



100 



4 



Wf>Vm\'m'7mP7^7mi 




222:1 — Upper Skull of Iclitliyaiauriu. 



S215. — Head of Camper's MosaBanras. 



8217^-Teeth of Geosannis. 






2219.— Portion of Fig. 2018, 



8226.— Lower Jaw of Ichthyosaurus. 




3216. — Head of Soniliiering'3 Geosaurus. 




102 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Extinct SAnRiANS. 



lensith, which consists of enormously stout veriebrae, i 
exceedinir those of the back; indeed (he body seems 
disproportionately small to the volume of llie head | 
and neck ; but the anterior limbs are very long, the | 
paws lar>;e, and the tinger for supportinij the mem- i 
brane greatly developed : and no doubt, when this 
membrane on each side was unfolded, it advanced 
so as to prevent the animal fiom necessarily droop- i 
ing the head during flisht, and thus maintained the . 
balance of the botly. Fig. 2214 is a delineation of 
this species, as restored by Dr. Goldfuss. 1 

Dr. Huckland remarks that in one species (the Pt. ; 
macronyx, from the lias at Lyme Regis) there is 
an unusual provision for giving support and move- 
ment to a large head at the extremity of a long 
neck, by the occurrence of bony tendons, running 
parallel to the cervical vertebrK, like the tendons 
that pass along the back of the pigmy musk-deer, 
and of many birds. This provision, he observes, 
does not occur in any modem lizards, whose necks 
are short and require no such aid. 

With respect to the habits and food of these flying 
lizards — these aiirial sauria — we can only form a con- 
jecture. Dr. Ruckland thinks it probable that, be- 
sides having the power of flight, they might be ca- 
pable of swimming also, as the Rousette bat of the 
island of Bonin (Pteropus), and that the larger spe- 
cies might possibly have fed upon fishes, darting at 
them as they rose to the surface and carrying them 
away ; the smaller were probably insectivorous. He 
adduces the size and form of the hind foot, and also 
of the leg and thigh, to show that the Pterodactyles 
had the power of standing firmly on the ground, 
where, with their wings closed, they possibly moved 
after the manner of birds; and that they could also 
perch on trees and climb on rocks and cliffs, with 
their hind and fore feet conjointly, like bats and 
lizards. 

Contemporary with these strange monsters — 
" chimsene dire" — were monstrous ichthyosauri and 
plcsiosauri ploughing the waters, while on the shore 
crawled gigantic crocodiles and tortoises, and huge 
Crustacea. 

2215. — Camper's MosASArans 

{Mosa.i(atnis Camperi). Head fossil. In the cal- 
careous hills of the valley of the Meuse near Maes- 
tricht, in the upper chalk in England, and also in 
the green sand of Virginia, occur the remains of a 
huge aquatic lizard, the head of which in many 
points resembles that of the Varans (Varanus 
Mersem) of the present day, but had teeth in the 
palate (pterygoid bones) as well as in the jaws, like 
the iguanas. This gigantic reptile, the remains of 
which have been by some mistaken for those of the 
whale, appears to have succeeded the ichthyosauri 
and plesiosauri, as the tyrant of the waters, its re- 
mains occurring in strata posterior to those in which 
the bones of these later reptiles are imbedded. It 
e.Kceeded twenty-five feet m length, and was ex- 
pressly foi-med for cleaving the ocean with wonder- 
ful rapidity. The tail was compressed laterally, 
high and deep, in the vertical direction, and with 
this huge oar it lashed vigorously from side to side, 
sculling itself onwards. Instead of legs, it had four 
large flippers, like those of the plesiosaurus, and 
could therefore dive and mount again to the surface 
with the utmost ease. The ball-and-socket union of 
thevertebrsB forming the spinal column allowed the 
utmost flexibility of movement, and thus was it or- 
ganized for a life of aquatic rapine, destroying the 
largest fishes with a snap of its tremendous jaws. 
Tne head measures four feet in length ; that of the 
largest living Varan five inches. 

2216, 2217, 2218, 2219.— Sommbking's Gkosaueds 

(Geosaurus Scemmeringii). Fossil bones. 

The remains of this reptile were found in the 
canton of Meulenhardt (near Mannheim) at the 
depth of ten feet, and at a little distance from the re- 
mains of a crocodilus prisons, by labourers em- 
ployed to work the mines of granular iron which 
fill the fissures of the calcareous schist. Near 
these relics were the shell of an ammonite, fragments 
of a bluish shell, and a great quantity of small scales. 
Other fragments of this reptile have been found in 
the Soleiihofen slate, and we believe in America 
(marl of the green sand. New Jersey). This species, 
though allied to the preceding, differs in dental 
characters ; and the orbit presents us with bony 
lamins, which belonged either to the upper eyelid, 
or, as is more probable, to the sclerotic coat of the 
eye, a structure occurring in the recent varans, but 
not in crocodiles. It appears to have measured 
twelve or thirteen feet in length. Fig 2216, a and b 
represent part of the head, which has been com- 
pressed ; some of the sclerotic plates are still visible 
within the orbit, at h. Fig. 2217, c, d. e, teeth which 
had preserved their shining, hard, and brown enamel. 
Fig. 2218, a portion of the vertebral column, with 
fragments of ribs, See. Fig. 2219, //, another portion 
of the vertebral column, also with Irasuieuts of ribs. 



2220. — The Megalosaubus. 

Portions of the lower jaw. The remains of this 
enormous reptile have been found in the oolitic j 
slate at Stonesfield, the ferruginous sandstone of 
Tilgate Forest, and the oolite of Normandy. No 
entire skeleton has been discovered, but the frag- 
ments prove Its colossal dimensions; and the struc- 
ture of its teeth that it was carnivorous. The 
thigh-bone of an individual, formerly in the collec- 
tion of Gideon iMantell, Esq., and now in the British 
Museum (from the Tilgale Forest), measures more 
than twenty inches in circumference, equalling in 
magnitude that of the largest elephant. Hence, if 
the total length of this reptile was in proportion to 
the length of its extremities, it mu»t in height have 
equalled our largest elephants, and have fallen but 
little short of the largest whales in length ; making, 
however, every deduction, it would not have mea- 
sured less than sixty or seventy feet. To such a 
reptile our hugest cro"codiles are mere pigmies. 
Thigh-bones of smaller individuals are in the mu- 
seum of Oxford. Of these the largest is nearly three 
feet in length, and ten inches in circumference at 
its smallest part. Hence, calculating according to 
the ordinary standard of the lizard families, the in- | 
dividual when alive could not have been less than 
from six to seven feet high, nor than forty feet long. \ 
The teeth of this animal were compressed, sharp, 
and arched backwards, with the edges finely denticu- 
lated; the germs of successive teeth (those taking , 
the place of such as are worn out and fall) are in ! 
distinct sockets by the side of their antecessors. 

Fig. 2220 represents, a, the anterior extremity of j 
the right lower jaw seen from the inside ; b, the same, 
presenting its outer side. Fig. 2221 shows the tooth 
of Megalosaurus, two-thirds the natural size. The 
dotted lines indicate the conical cavity containing 
pulp, within the root of the growing tooth, a is a 
transverse section, showing the compressed form, 
rounded back, and sharp cutting edge anteriorly. 

2222. — The Ichthyosaurus 

{Ichtfii/osaurus communis). It is in the lias and 
oolitic formations that the remains of the Ichthyo- 
sauri, or fish lizards, abound. They have been found 
chiefly in the lias at Lyme Regis ; but, according to 
Dr. Buckland, they exist along the whole extent of 
this formation throughout England, from the coasts 
of Dorset, throueh Somersetshire and Leicestershire, 
to the coast of Yorkshire. They are found also in 
the lias of France and Germany. The range of the 
genus Ichthyosaurus, says Dr. Buckland, "seems to 
have begun with the Muschelkalk, and to have ex- 
tended through the whole of the oolitic period into 
the crestaceous formation. The most recent stratum 
in which any remains of this genus have been found 
is in the chalk marl at Dover, where they have been 
discovered by Dr. Mantell. I have found them in 
the gault, near Benson, Oxon." The general form 
of this extraordinary animal may be easily under- 
stood from a survey of the skeleton as restored by 
Conybeare, Figs. 2222 and 2223, compared with Fig. 
2224, the skeleton merely cleared from the lias in 
which it was imbedded. Some of the largest of these 
aquatic reptiles must have exceeded thirty feet in 
length. Let us suppose a grampus, with a sharp 
muzzle, with four broad paddles, and a long tail 
laterally compressed, deep and high, forming a 
caudal fin for lashing the water from side to side, 
large eyes, and tremendous jaws, and we have a 
tolerably faithful likeness of this tenant of the an- 
cient seas. The whole organization of the skeleton 
demonstrates that the habits of the Ichthyosaurus 
were exclusively aquatic. The muzzle is elongated 
and pointed, and the teeth, amounting to one hun- 
dred and eighty in some specimens, are set in a fur- 
row of the jaws, and their succession is managed, as 
in the crocodile, by "the young tooth budding up 
at the base of the old tooth, where, as it grows, its 
pressure sets the absorbents at work ; the base of 
the old tooth is thus partially removed, and as the 
new tooth advances, is finally disp'aced to make 
room for its more efficient successor.' The nostrils 
are placed just anterior to the orbits, in which we 
observe still remaining the osseous sclerotic ring, 
composed of distinct portions, placed in regular 
array. The eye was extremely large ; and we can 
imagine how it glared with ferocity as the monster 
darted towards his prey. Tremendous must have 
been 'the snap of the jaws when the animal seized 
his victim, and as they ar§ long and slender, some 
liability to fracture, from the mere force of the 
muscles producing their sudden and forceful col- 
lision, might not unreasonably be expected ; indeed, 
as Dr. Buckland well observes, a definite provision 
is made against this in the lower jaw, each ramus of 
which consists of six pieces of unequal length, 
placed together on the same principle as the plates 
forming the steel springs of carriages ; they are 
most numerous and strong at the portion of the jaw 
where the greatest strength is required to be exerted, 
where in lact the main stress is, and are thinner 



and fewer anteriorly. This arrangement is well 
seen on the uppermost skull. Fig. 2225, and in the 
sketch of the lower jaw. Fig. 2226. 

The neck is short, and the vertebral column very 
peculiar; it consists of nioie than one hundred ver- 
tebne, which, instead of resembling those of saurian 
reptiles, are formed on the type of those of fishes ; 
they are, in fact, concave anteriorly and posteriorly, 
and were doubtless filled by a thick fluid, and bound 
together by elastic capsules. " The sauroid type." 
observes Dr. Buckland, " is here departed from, in 
favour of a conformation demanded by the habits of 
the animal." It is further noticed, he adds, by Sir 
E. Home, that the annular part of the vertebrae 
(enclosing the spinal cord above) is neither consoli- 
dated with the body of the separate bones as in 
quadrupeds, nor connected by suture as in crocodiles, 
but remains always distinct, being articulated by a 
peculiar joint resembling a compressed, oval, ball- 
and-socket joint ; and Mr. Conybeare observes that 
this mode of articulation co-operates with the cup- 
shaped form of the intervertebral joints, in giving 
flexibility to the vertebral column, and assisting its 
vibratory motions ; for, had these parts been conso- 
lidated as in quadrupeds, their articulating processes 
must have locked the whole columti together, so as 
to render such a motion of its parts impossible. 

Every one knows that the spinal column of a 
recent fish maintains itself straight (when removed 
from the animal), and has a certain degree of springi- 
ness, or elasticity, by which, when bent, it returns to 
the same form ; this results from the form of the 
vertebr*, the elastic capsules binding each to each, 
and the presence of the fluid which fills their cup- 
shaped cavities; it is very probable that in the 
Ichthyosaurus the same character prevailed. 

Fig. 2227 represents the sternal arch and anterior 
paddles of this animal, in which it will be seen how 
provision is made for the strain of the latter, while 
breasting the rolling waves ; at the same time the 
broad surfaces of the clavicles, besides adding to the 
strength of the chest, afford an ample and solid 
surface for the attachment of powerful muscles. 
The blades of the paddles, if we may use the 
expression, consist of polygonal bones disposed in 
regular order, exhibiting a tessellated surface. 

It is however, not only the external form and 
general habits of this being of an antique world that 
the anatomist has the means of ascertaining ; he has 
also data from which he can deduce many important 
inferences with respect both to the internal structure 
and the nature of the food ; indeed, the fossilized 
contents of the abdominal viscera, termed Coprolites, 
are often found in abundance between the ribs ; and 
without entering into details, we may observe that 
the alimentary canal must have been very analogoiis 
to that of the sharks of the modern ocean : these 
coprolites consist principally of the scales of extinct 
fishes, and chiefly of those of a species (known in a 
fossil state) termed Pholidophorus limbatus; these 
scales are not only found in most of the coprolites, 
but dispersed throughout the entire region of the 
ribs. Fig. 2228 shows the ordinary form of the 
coprolites : n is a magnified scale of Pholidophorus 
limbatus imbedded therein (internal surface); b, the 
external surface of the same. 

With respect to the tegumentary covering of the 
ichthyosaurus, we may conclude, from the absence 
of plates or large scales, or the impressions of such, 
in the lias, that it was simple and naked, resembling 
that of the grampus and other cetaceous animals. 
Thus then, from the beds of lias in which they have 
been entombed for ages, have the relics of these 
aquatic sauria " been summoned by the labours of 
the geologist to give evidence of events that passed 
at the bottom of the ancient seas in ages long pre- 
ceding the existence of man." They tell of seas 
over \vhich the canoe of the savage never floated, 
yet teeming with life ; of a system of warfare anil 
destruction in which man took no part ; of alterations 
on the surface of our planet, themselves being the 
historic monuments ; of changes in the forms of 
i organic existence ; of races commencing, spreading 
far and wide, and then blotted out of the catalogue of 
living things. This is no dream of fancy, no theory 
based upon an unstable foundation ; the proofs are 
abundant, and such as to force conviction. We may 
picture to oui-selves the huge ichthyosaurus plough- 
ing the billows, driving the shoals of fish belbre 
him, pursuing them with unrelenting pertinacity, 
and thinning their numbers ; we may picture him 
cruising about the mouths of rivers, and scattering 
terror in the finny hordes around ; but a change has 
taken place, and the ploughman drives his team 
where the ichthyosaurus, entombed below, once 
revelled in his might. 

Ten distinct species of ichthyosaurus are recorded 
by Professor Owen, viz. : Ichth. communis, Cony- 
beare ; intermedius, Con. ; platyodon, Con. ; conchi- 
odon Owen ; latifrons, Konig ; latimanus, Owen ; 
thyreospondylus, Owen ; trigonus, Owen ; tenui- 
rostris. Con. ; and acutirostris, Owen. 
This admirable anatomist, comparing the paddks 



Extinct Sauriaxs.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



103 



of these enaliosaurians,* as tliey are termed, with 
those of the cetacea, comments on the development 
of the clavicles, and of the sterno-clavicular and 
coracoid arches in the former, an apparatus which 
would enable the animals, if stranded, to raise them- 
selves up and regain the water, like seals, which the 
cetacea cannot do ; and he adds, " Doubtless the 
anterior paddles mia;ht be subservient to locomotion, 
not only in the water, but on land ; that when 
applied to the resisting soil, they might react with 
due force upon the trunk. It is very conceivable 
that the ichthyosaurus, like the crocodile, may have 
come ashore to sleep, or to deposit its eggs, sup- 
posing them to have been oviparous, as the sura 
of their analogies deducible from their osseous tex- 
ture would indicate. The hind paddles would also 
be serviceable in terrestrial progression, while in the 
strictly marine cetacea they can readily be dispensed 
with." 

If the Ichthyosaurus ever came on shore, its mo- 
tions must have been awkward and shuffling, not 
perhaps unlike those of the marine turtles, which 
perhaps also resemble it in its mode of depositing 
and burying its eggs. 

2229. — The PLESiosArmos 

{Plesiosaunis dolichodeirus). We are here presented 
with another group of extinct Enaliosaurians, of 
strange form, the existence of which was contem- 
porary with that of the Ichthyosaurus, their remains 
-occurring in the same strata. If our readers refer to 
vol. i. p. 113, Fig. 510, an attempted restoration of 
(he characteristic forms of animal and vegetable life, 
during the deposition of the secondary series of 
strata, in which the oolitic formation is included, 
the Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus will appear con- 
spicuous; and some observations in p. 114, on the 
leading features of the primary, secondary, and ter- 
tiary periods, may be not uninteresting, read in con- 
nexion with the present account of these reptiles ; as 
serving to give some idea of the period of their ex- 
istence, relatively to that of beings belonging to the 
transition period ; and, also, that of animals ap- 
proaching more nearly to, and often closely resem- 
bling, the present tenants of our planet, and with 
which the tertiary strata are replete ; creatures 
which, in the eyes of the geologist, have but re- 
cently passed away, to make room for successors, 
often, indeed, of the same order and genus. 

The skeleton of the Plesiosaurus (Fig. 2229) was 
found in 1823, at Lyme Regis, imbedded in the 
shale or slate, which lies between the beds of lias 
limestone, and is crushed almostflat, probably by the 
deposition of the vast mass of stone above it. Its 
component parts, however, are easily made out; the 
bones of the body having suffered the most distor- 
tion. The small head, elongated neck, four ample 
paddles, and short tail, are, with the exception of 
one paddle, very apparent ; the vertebra: of the 
lower part of the neck and chest, and the ribs, are 
disunited and scattered confusedly ; yet from these 
may the skeleton be rebuilt, and a fair idea of the 
appearance of the living animal deduced. It was a 
reptile with large flippers, adapted for aquatic pro- 
gression, with a flexible neck, exceeding the body in 
length, and terminated by a small head, the jaws 
being armed with tormidable teeth. Dr. Buckland 
truly observes that the discovery of this genus 
forms one of the most important additions that 
geology has made to comparative anatomy. " It is 
of the Plesiosaurus," lie adds, " that Cuvier asserts 
the structure to have been the most heteroclite, and 
its characters altogether the most monstrous, that 
have been yet found amidst the ruins of a former 
world. To the head of a lizard it united the teeth 
of a crocodile ; a neck of enormous length, resem- 
bling the body of a serpent ; a trunk and tail having 
the proportions of an ordinary quadruped ; the ribs 
of a chameleon, and the paddles of a whale. Such 
are the strange combinations of form and structure 
in the Plesiosaurus, a genus, the remains of which, 
after interment for thousands of years, amidst 
the wreck of millions of the inhabitants of the an- 
cient earth, are at length recalled to light by the 
researches of the geologist, and submitted to our 
examination, in nearly as perfect a state as the 
species that are now existing upon the earth." 

Conybeare, who, when materials were far more 
scanty than at present, with singular acumen restored 
the skeleton of this wonderful extinct animal, thus 
deduces a rationale of its probable habits and man- 
ners : "That it was aquatic," he says, "is evident 
from the form of its paddles; that it was marine is 
almost equally so, from the remains with which it is 
universally associated ; that it may have occasion- 
ally visited the shore, the resemblance of its ex- 
tremities to those of a turtle may lead us to conjec- 
ture ; its motion, however, must have been awkward 
on land ; its long neck must have impeded its pro- 
gress through the water, presenting a striking con- 
trast to the organization which so admirably fits the 

* \fiXin, marine ; nuif»$, a lizard. 



Ichthyosaurus to cut through the waves. May it 
not, therefore, be considered (since in addition to 
these circumstances its respiration must have re- 
quired frequent access of air) that it swam upon or 
near the surface, arching back its long neck like the 
swan, and occasionally darting it down at the fish 
which happened to float withm its reach ? It may, 
perhaps, have lurked in shoal water along the coast, 
concealed among the sea-weed, and, raising its nos- 
trils to the surface, from a considerable depth, have 
found a secure retreat from the assaults of danger- 
ous enemies ; while the length and flexibility of its 
neck may have compensated for the want of strength 
in its jaws and its incapacity for swift motion 
through the water, by the suddenness and agility of 
the attack which they enabled it to make on every 
animal fitted for its prey which came within its 
reach."— ' Geol. Trans.' vol. i. p. 388, N. S. 

We agree with the latter ideas expressed by the 
eminent writer; and it has often struck us that 
there is an analogy between it and the New Holland 
Chelodina (Chelodina Novae Hollandiae), a fresh- 
water tortoise, with a serpentiform elongated neck, 
and which lurks in concealment, suddenly darting at 
and seizing such fish or reptiles as approach its 
place of ambush. 

The species of Plesiosaurus determined are even 
more numerous than those of the Ichthyosaurus, 
amounting, according to Professor Owen, to sixteen 
in number — viz. : PI. Hawkensii, Owen ; dolicho- 
deirus, Conybeare ; macrocephahis, Conybeare ; bra- 
chycephalus, Owen ; niacromus, Owen ; pachyomus, 
Owen ; arcuatus, Owen ; subtrigonus, Owen ; tri- 
gonus, Cuvier; brachyspondylus, Owen; costatus, 
Owen ; daedicomus, Owen ; rugosus, Owen ; grandis, 
Owen ; trochanterius, Owen ; and affinis, Owen. 

We shall now proceed to offer a few general ob- 
servations on the bones of this genus, of which we 
have some interesting pictorial examples. 

Figs. 2230 and 2231 represent the Skeleton of the 
Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus as restored by Conybeare, 
and convey a good idea of the animal's general 
form. 

The head (Fig. 2232, a, the Profile ; b, the Upper 
Surface) is not unlike that of the crocodile in general 
form, but is much smaller in proportion to the body ; 
in the elongated form of the strong cranial bones, and 
also in other details, it exhibits, as Professor Owen 
remarks, an affinity to that of the Lacertian Sauria. 
The nostrils are situated just anterior to the orbits. 

The usual complicated structure observable in the 
lower jaw of the Saurians appears also in that of the 
Plesiosaurus, the general form of which will be 
better conceived by referring to Fig. 2004 than by 
any merely descriptive details: a is the lower jaw 
seen from above; h is the same viewed laterally; 
c, the jaw seen from below. Fig. 2234 is a tooth, 
sliehtly magnified. 

With respect to the ribs, their free extremities 
are connected together in the abdominal region by 
a series of intermediate slender pieces, so adapted 
to each other as to admit of a sliding motion of 
their component parts on each other, thus favouring 
the expansion of the cavity containing the lungs. 
These intermediate bones have been termed by 
Conybeare sterno-costal arcs. Their general outline 
is represented at Fig. 2235. 

Fig. 2236 represents the Pectoral Arch of the 
Plesiosaurus, which is remarkable for strength and 
development. It consists of the sternum, the 
clavicles, and the coracoid bones (respectively let- 
tered St., CI., and Cor.) ; the latter are remarkably 
expanded. As the posterior limbs equal and some- 
times exceed the anterior in size, the pelvic bones, 
as might be expected, are well developed, constitut- 
ing an arch, as seen at Fig. 22.37, consisting of the 
pubic bones, the ischiatic, and the iliac (respectively 
lettered Pub., Isch., and 11.), irrespective of the ver- 
tebrae. 

With respect to the neck, it varies in the different 
species, as to the number of vertebral bones compos- 
ing it, from twenty to forty. 

As it would he out of place in our present work 
to enter into the minutiae of osteological details, we 
shall cut short these observations, recommending to 
those who wish to enter deeply into the subject 
Profe.ssor Owen's Report on the Enaliosauria, or 
lizards of the sea, read at the British Association for 
the Advancement of Science ; to the Geol. Trans., 
vol. v. 2nd series, 1840; and Geol. Proc. 1838. 

Fig. 2238 represents the Relics of Plesiosaurus 
macroccphalus as cleared from the block in which 
they were embedded. In this species the head is 
comparatively larger than in PI. dolichodeirus, and 
the neck shorter and much thicker. 

Such then is an outline of the general characters 
of these reptiles of a former world, beings which 
cannot fail to excite the astonishment of all who for 
a moment contemplate their form and proportions. 
In the British Museum a splendid series of their 
remains strikes the attention of even the most care- 
less visitors, and leads the reflective to throw them- 
selves back upon a by-gone time, overleaping 



all historic periods, and calling up around them 
scenes totally dissimilar from any now displayed 
upon the surface of this planet. On the land grew 
plants such as Lepidodendron, Stigmaria, &c., now 
entirely unknown, towering pines, Zamiae, and 
strange ferns ; the morass was crowded with plants 
apparently resembling the equisetum ; overhead 
sailed the Pterodactyles ; various insectsflitted about, 
hovering over the marbh, along the borders of which 
wandered the huge Mogalosaurvis ; the watera 
teemed with life : turtles, fishes, ammonites, nautili, 
echini, and cuttle-fish, with varied encrinites and 
corals, lived and perished in those seas whose billows 
were breasted by Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri, dart- 
ing alter their prey, and leaving a hoary track behind 
them. But silence reigned, save when some monster 
uttered a hideous hiss or roar, or lashed the water 
into foam ; no birds saluted the morning sun with 
their voices, or made the woods resonant of melody ; 
a few ])erhaps might have existed, but they were 
thinly scattered : no deer or antelope browsed in rich 
meadows, no cattle wandered over the hills, no 
elephants came traniphng their way through the 
forests; all was still and silent. If indeed any mam- 
malia existed, like the birds they were few and local ; 
for it is not till we arrive at the tertiaiy series of 
deposits that their remains in abundance prove the 
earth then fairly fitted for their general distribution. 
During the deposition of the oolitic strata of the 
secondary series, few spots perhaps were adapted 
for their reception. How ditfeient the animal and 
vegetable kingdoms of that far-distant period to the 
animal and vegetable kingdoms of the present day, 
and how ditferent the relation of the land to the 
waters ! What are islands and continents now was a 
wide waste of ocean, or vast lagoons : but still have 
we in the solid rock the monuments of time which 
proclaim (how impressively !) the primeval phases 
through which our planet has passed, and the 
changes and succession of organic beings on its 
surface. They prove, moreover, that at the period 
of the depositions taking place to which we imme- 
diately refer, viz., the oolitic, lias, and Jura lime- 
stone, the saurian order had assumed its full develop- 
ment, and exhibited a series of monstrous forms, the 
contemplation of which fills our minds with asto- 
nishment. 



ORDER OPHIDIA (SERPENTS). 

The present order, Ophidia, abounds in species 
principally confined to the hottest regions, but 
extending also into the temperate latitudes, and 
even to climates where the cold of winter is consider- 
able : in this sense they may be said to be spread 
almost universally, with certain exceptions. We 
may instance Ireland, where, indeed, it is said that 
there are no reptiles, the climate or soil being un- 
fitted for their existence : this assertion, however, is 
not quite correct, for the frog is common ; and 
though attempts to introduce the harmless ringed 
snake of our island have hitherto failed, it is because 
when discovered these reptiles are killed by the 
peasantry, who regard them with abhorrence. We 
quote from Mr. Bell the following communication, 
which he received from Mr. Thompson, exjilanatory 
of the reason why St. Patrick's malediction still 
operates in keeping the Emerald Isle clear of these 
animals: — "In this order Ophidia," he writes, 
" there is not now, nor I believe ever was there, any 
species indigenous to Ireland. In the Edinburgh 
New Philosophical Journal for April, 1835, it is 
remarked : — ' We have learned from good authority 
that a recent importation of snakes has been made 
into Ireland, and that at present they are multiply- 
ing rapidly within a few miles of the tomb of St. 
Patrick.' I never," proceeds Mr. Thompson, " heard 
of this circumstance until it was pubHshed, and 
subsequently endeavoured to ascertain its truth, by 
inquinng of the persons about Downpatrick (where 
the tomb of St. Patrick is) who are best acquainted 
with these subjects, not one of whom ever heard of 
snakes being in the neighbourhood. Recollecting 
that about the year 1831 a snake (Natrix torquata), 
immediately alter being killed at Milecross, was 
brought by some country people in great consterna- 
tion to my friend Dr. J. L. Drummond, I thought 
this might be one of those alluded to, and recently 
made inquiry of James Cleaveland, Esq., of Ruth 
Gael House (county Down), twenty-five miles distant 
in a direct line from Downpatrick, respecting snakes 
said to have been turned out by him. I was 
favoured by that gentleman with the following 
satisfactory reply : ' The report of my having in- 
troduced snakes mto this country is correct. Being 
curious to ascertain whether the climate of Ireland 
was destructive to that class of reptiles, about six 
years ago I purchased half a dozen of them in 
Covent Garden Market in London ; they had been 
taken some time, and were quite tame and familiar. 
I turned them out in my garden ; they immediately 
rambled away ; one of them was killed at Milecross, 



tSM.— lehtlifonimn. 





3M8.— Coprolite of Idrthyowoni*. ' 



»?27.— Sternal Atch and Anterior Paddln'of Ichthyoainna. 




itSSt—IcTiibjoaaras. 




^^'^ A ^ 













8a2».— 'Plcrionnnn.w fctmd at Lraw Rejl*. 



104 






2232.— Head of Pleaiosaunw. 





2238.— rieaiosau7as ; a? imbedded. 



2233, — Lower Jaw of Plesiosaums, 




No, 64. Vol. II. 




2S31. — Skeleton of Flesiosaurna: restored. 
[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



105 



1C6 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Sehpents. 



three miles digtant, about a week aner its liberation, \ 
and three others were shortly afterwards killed i 
within that distance of the place where they were 
turned out, and it is highly probable that the 
remaining two met with a similar fate, falling 
victims to a reward which was offered for their 
desti-uction.'" It would appear then, that though 
the snake is not indigenous in Ireland, there is 
nothing in the climate to prevent its naturalization. 

There are no snakes in New Zealand, but on one 
occasion several dead sea-snakes were driven on 
the coast, to the consternation of the natives : one of 
these was presented to the Zool. Soc. (See ' Pro- 
ceeds.' 1838, p. 4.) ,.,,.. 

In the great Polynesian groups of islands these 
reptiles are not found, with a remarkable excep- 
tion, recorded by the late Mr. Williams, of the 
London Missionary Society, whose tragical fate is 
so well known. In his narrative he thus writes 
respecting the Samoa Islands, oflen termed the 
Navieators' : — Snakes also, wliich are unknown at 
the Tahitian and Hervey groups, abound here; I 
was informed that there were several species of 
them, some of which are beautifully variegated. 
Those procured for me were of a dark olive colour, 
about three feet long. There are also water-snakes, 
some of them beautifully marked with longitudinal 
stripes of yellow and black, and others with rings 
alternately white and black. The natives esteem 
both the land and sea snakes good food. In the 
disorder occasioned by the leak in our ship, and her 
subsequent sinking at Tongatabu, I lost my snakes 
and manv other curiosities which I was conveying 
home." 'To this he adds the following information : 
" Very large lizards are found on the mountains of 
Savaii and Upolo; and from the description I 
received I should conclude they were guanas. 
None, however, of these reptiles are venomous.* 
Another peculiarity in the natural history of the 
group is that a wild dog is found in the mountains ; 
I regretted exceedingly that I could not obtain one. 
From the description I received it appears to be a 
small animal of a dark dirty grey or lead colour, 
with little or no hair, and large erect eare." 

Somewhat unsatisfactory and unsettled are the 
genera into which the order Ophidia is divided ; it 
may be observed, however, that these reptiles pri- 
marily resolve themselves into three distinct sec- 
tions, viz., innoxious, poisonous, and aquatic, each 
section having its own characteristics. 

Looking at the ophidian reptiles generally, we 
may describe them as of elongated form, with the 
head distinct, possessing great flexibility and 
strength. The mouth is wide and dilatable, the 
eyes are bright, there are no external auditoiy 
orifices, nor are there any limbs, but in some, as the 
Boas, the posterior pair, as we shall hereafter more 
fully explain, exist in the form of stylets, and assist 
the tail in grasping. 

The top of the head is covered with plates, some- 
times with scales, resembling those of the upper 
surface, which are small or moderate, more or less 
acutely pointed, and imbricated ; these are termed 
squamcB. The scales of the under surface are broad 
and transverse, and the posterior edge of each over- 
lays the anterior margin of the one succeeding. 
These transverse under-plates are termed scuta. 

The eyes are exposed, being undefended by eye- 
lids, but the surface of the cornea is covered by a 
transparent continuation of a delicate epidermic 
membrane which invests the scales, and which is 
frequently cast off, the animal emerging in brighter 
colours and with renewed strength and activity. 
This epidermic investment is known as the slough 
of the snake. If we look at the skeleton of the 
snake, and we take for our example that of dne of 
the non-venomous snakes called pythons (see Fig. 
2239), we shall be surprised at the beautiful arrange- 
ment of its component parts, at the number of the 
vertebra and the ribs, and a little investigation will 
serve to show how admirably it is adapted for flexi- 
bility and strength. 

If we attend first to the spinal column, of which 
two vertebrse are represented at Fig. 2240, we shall 
find that the bones are united together by ball and 
socket articulations, or in other words, that the 
rounded head of each is fitted into a cup-like cayily 
of its predecessor, so that the whole column is a 
chain of these joints, by which the vertebrse are 
firmly locked together, but which at the same time 
permit the utmost degree of mobility compatible 
with the safetv of the spinal cord. The various 
processes for the attachment of muscles are very 
prominent, and on the under surface, as seen at Fig. 
2240, a a, are protuberances for the attachment of 
constricting muscles, by the action of which the 
python or boa crushes his victim. 

To the vertebrae thus united are attached the ribs, 
and these are so ordered as to become efficient or- 
gans of locomotion ; a circumstance first discovered 
by Tyson, and recorded in his observations on the 

Thla it not q<iii« coirect ; the lea-makes ue exceedingly venomoiu. 



anatomy of the rattlesnake (' Phil. Trans.*). Sir 
Joseph lianks subsequenily noticed it in the com- 
mon snake. 

From every vertebral bone, those of the tail ex- 
cepted, arises on each side an arched rib, capable 
of a certain degree of motion, being articulated upon 
a convex protuberance, and acted upon by powerful 
muscles, which advance or retract it. Instead of 
being attached by their extremity to a sternum or 
breast-bone, each pair of ribs is connected to one 
of the abdominal scuta, by means of a slender car- 
tilage and a set of short muscles. It is on the 
points of these ribs, which may be compared to the 
legs of a millipede, that the snake rests, and they 
act in progressive order, as we see the legs of that 
creature, each pair bringing forward the plate or 
scutum to which it is attached, and which may be 
regarded as their common foot. If a snake be al- 
lowed quietly to crawl over the hand, the progres- 
sive movements of the ribs may be easily distin- 
guished, and also, if it be watched while crawling 
over any raised edge, as the back of a book, re- 
quiring the firm application of two or three scuta 
in succession as the body glides over it. According 
to Sir E. Home, the muscles which bring forward 
the ribs consist of five sets, besides other internal 
muscles. 

The ordinary movement of a serpent is sinuous, 
its body assuming a series of gentle flexures, while 
the ribs, which are expanded, bring forward the 
abdominal scuta in succession ; the posterior edge 
of each laying hold as it were of the ground, and 
becoming a fixed point from which to set out anew. 
When the snake proceeds rapidly, the flexures of 
its body are more ample and acute, and in this 
manner, making a series of undulations from side to 
side, it glides along with great velocity. These 
animals can also proceed by a series of bounds, 
by springing either from the tail or hinder half of 
the body, but their structure forbids their progress 
by vertical undulations, as they are often represented 
in the older, works. Most can climb trees, some, in- 
deed, are arboreal, and they swim and dive with 
facility and grace. Many serpents can leap or throw 
themselves to a great distance ; in some instances 
they coil themselves up spirally, then instantaneously 
relaxing the muscles of one side, and at the same 
instant calling into action those of the outer side, 
they propel themselves with great quickness on 
their prey; the projectile impulse resembling that 
of a slender spring coiled up spirally, pressed on 
the table, and suddenly released. 

The .skull of the serpent presents us with a very 
curious structure. It is well known that these ani- 
mals swallow prey far exceeding their own body in 
bulk, and that the jaws adapt themselves to the 
mass, which is gradually gorged • they are, in fact, 
dislocated altogether during the act, and subse- 
quently recover themselves. Let us look at the 
skull of a large python, represented at Figs. 2241, 
2242, and 2243 (as seen from above, a palatal view, 
and in profile), we shall find that most of the bones 
composing it, instead of being locked together as 
in mammalia, are separate, and only retained in 
their places by skin ligaments and muscles. The 
upper jaw, see Fig. 2241, is composed of two dis- 
tinct branches, separate from the bones of the skull, 
with a distinct intermaxillary bone between the 
points of each ; and it will be found, moreover, that 
the bones of the face continue in their elemental 
state of subdivision, and are all disunited ex- 
cepting by means of a fibrous elastic tissue. The 
lower jaw (Fig. 2243) consists also of two distinct 
lateral branches, disunited at the symphysis ; each 
branch, which consists of two portions united by a 
lax kind of suture, is connected to the skull by two 
moveable bones, namely, an elongated tympanic 
bone, and a mastoidean bone ; the attachment of 
these bones together, and to the skull, is merely by 
ligaments and muscles, so that when the jaws are 
straining in the act of ingulfing pity, the articu- 
lations admit of a natural dislocation ; at the same 
time the skin, muscles of the neck and throat, and 
the gullet, are capable of enormous extension, the 
animal appearing as if ready to burst, while the 
working of the muscles, stretched as they are, is 
very palpable. During this operation it might be 
supposed that the snake would be suffocated, but it 
is found that the larynx is protruded beyond the 
edge of the dilated lower jaw, as was first noticed 
by Mr. Broderip ; and Mr. Green has detected two 
muscles specially adapted to draw the larynx for- 
wards during the act of deglutition. 

From what we have said it will be perceived that 
serpents do not masticate their food ; hence are their 
teeth adapted for seizing and retaining living prey. 
We pass for the present a consideration of the 
poison fangs of venomous serpents, confining our 
observations to the teeth of the non-venomous. 
They are simple, conical, sharp, and directed back- 
wards ; above there are four rows, viz., a row in 
each branch of the upper jaw, including the inter- 
maxillary bone, and a row on each side of the palate. 



roofed in the palatine and pterygoid bones : a row 
of teeth crowns the ridge of the anterior portion of 
each ramus of the lower jaw. The number of teeth 
vary in different species ; sometimes they are nearly 
all equal in length, or, as in the Boas and Pythons, 
the anterior teeth are the largest, the decrease 
being gradual as they recede backwards ; in some, 
however, the back teeth are the largest, and in 
others a few teeth exceeding the rest are in the 
centre of each row. In the genus Deirodon (Anodon, 
Smith) the teeth are so small as to be scarcely per- 
ceptible, and besides so soon lost that the snakes 
of this genus have been regarded as toothless. These 
reptiles feed almost exclusively, if not entirely so, 
on the eggs of birds ; and, as Professor Owen ob- 
serves, "If the teeth had existed of the ordinary 
form and proportion, in the maxillary and palatal 
regions, the egg would have been broken as soon as 
it was seized, and much of its nutritious contents 
would have escaped from the lipless mouth of the 
snake in the act of deglutition ; but, owing to the 
almost edentulous state of the jaws, the egg glides 
along the expanded opening unbroken, and it is 
not until it has reached the gullet, and the closed 
mouth prevents any escape of the nutritious matter, 
that the shell is exposed'to instruments adapted for 
its perforation. These instruments consist of the 
inferior spinous processes of the seven or eight pos- 
terior cervical vertebrse, the extremities of which 
are capped by a layer of hard cement, and penetrate 
the dorsal (upper) parietes of the oesophagus; they 
may be readily seen even in very young subjects, 
in the interior of that tube, in which their points 
are directed backwards. The shell being sawed 
open longitudinally by these vertdrral teeth, the 
egg is crushed by the contractions of the gullet, and 
is carried to the stomach, where the shell is no 
doubt soon dissolved by the gastric juice " (' Odon- 
tography '). 

To the skull and teeth of the venomous serpents 
we shall invite attention when we come to our pic- 
torial specimens of that dreaded group. 

The lungs in snakes are either single, as in the 
common snake, or double, as in the python ; the 
right lung, however, being the most extensively de- 
veloped as a reservoir for air. The upper portion 
of the lung or lungs is spongy or cellular, and highly 
vascular, and it is in this portion that the change in 
the blood is effected ; gradually the spongy struc- 
ture, through the centre of which a free passage is 
left, merges into a thin membranous and but 
slightly vascular sac, serving as a reservoir for air. 

The voice of serpents when excited is a hissing 
noise more or less loud ; the tongue is long, moist, 
deeply forked, vibratory, and capable of being 
moved in all directions ; when withdrawn it is re- 
ceived into a sheath, which can be either elongated 
or contracted. The sense of taste is evidently little 
developed, nor is that of smell very acute. 

Serpents, like the reptile tribes in general, hy- 
bemate in temperate regions, but within the tropics 
their torpor depends on the continuance of drought; 
in this case, as Mr. Darwin well observes, the terra 
hybernation ought to be exchanged for aestivation. 
" Near Rio de Janeiro," he says, " I was at first sur- 
prised to observe that a few days after some little 
depressions had been changed into pools of water 
by the rain, they were peopled by numerous full- 
grown shells and beetles. Humboldt has related a 
strange accident of a hovel having been erected 
over a spot where a young crocodile lay buried in 
the hardened mud ; he adds, the Indians often find 
enormous boas, which they call Uji, or water-ser- 
pents, in the same lethargic state ; to reanimate 
them they must be irritated or wetted with water." 

Serpents are extremely tenacious of life, and in- 
stances have been known in which the head severed 
from the body has not only long retained vitality, but 
bitten with fury : we had once a viper which, although 
deprived of the posterior portion of the body by the 
blow of a stick, lived for several days. With respect 
to the natural duration of life in these animals little 
is positively known, but doubtless it is very pro- 
tracted, and years must elapse before a boa, which 
when first excluded from the egg does not exceed 
two feet in length, acquires that of thirty. The 
ancients believed that when they threw off their 
slough they renewed their youth, with a brighter 
robe, the index of fresh vigour. 

It has been a belief of long standing that snakes 
possess the power of fascinating their victims: of 
paralyzing the bird or squirrel, or even of attracting 
it till it advances to the very jaws of the ferocious 
reptile. Dr. Smith, in his ' Zoology of South 
Africa,' speaking of the Boomslange (Bucephalus 
Capensis), which is generally found on trees, to 
which it resorts for the purpose of catching birds, 
adds, "The presence of a specimen in a tree is ge- 
nerally soon discovered by the birds in the neigh- 
bourhood, which collect round it and fly to and fro, 
uttering the most piercing cries, till one more terror- 
struck than the rest actually scans its lips, end 
almost without resistance becomes a meal for its 



Snakes.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



107 



enemy. During such a proceeding the snake is ge- 
nerally observed witli its head raised about ten or 
twelve inches above the branch, round which its 
body and tail are intertwined, with its mouth open, 
and its neck inilated, as if anxiously endeavouring 
to increase the terror which it would almost appear 
it was aware would sooner or later bring within its 
grasp some one of the feathered group. Whatever 
may be said in ridicule of fascination, it is neverthe- 
less true, that birds and even quadrupeds are, under 
certain circumstances, unable to retire from the 
presence of their enemies ; and what is still more 
extraordinarj-, unable to resist the propensity to 
advance from a situation of actual safely, into one 
of the most imminent danger- This I have often 
seen exemplified in the case of birds and snakes, 
and I have heard of instances equally curious, in 
which antelopes and other quadrupeds have been 
so bewildered by the sudden appearance of croco- 
diles, and bv the grimaces and contortions they 
practised, as to be unable to fly, or even move from 
the spot towards which the latter were approaching 
to seize them." There is nothing, however, myste- 
rious in all this ; the snake does not mcsmeiise its 
prey, but merely so terrifies it as to stupil'y it ; be- 
sides, the victim may feel an impulse similar to 
that which urges many nervous persons on the 
edge of a precipice, or top of a lofty tower, to throw 
themselves down headlong, and which we have 
heard such describe as resisted with difficulty ; so 
may the panic-struck bird feel an impulse to rush 
into the danger which it might escape by flight. 
After all we agree with Dr. Barton of Philadelphia, 
that it is generally in defence of their eggs or young 
the parent birds sacrifice their lives, while they 
vainly endeavour with their beak and wings to drive 
the intruder away. . 

The ancients were not only well acquainted with 
the serpents of Italy and Greece, but also with the 
huge pythons of other countries. Aristotle notices 
certain serpents of Libya of enormous size, and nar- 
rates that some voyagers to that coast were pursued 
bv individuals of such magnitude, that they overset 
one of the triremes, or galleys with three stages of 
rowers. The peculiar manner, too, in which these 
pythons enfold and crush their victim was also 
understood, and is delineated in the admirable 
statue of Laocoon and his sons vainly struggling 
against their fate. (Fig. 2234.) ,_. „ " 

The story which is illustrated by this hne 
work * is told by Virgil in the Second ^Eneid, and 
refers to the vengeance taken by Minerva on ac- 
count of the insult offered by Laocoon, in hurling 
his spear at the wooden horse filled with armed 
men, which the Trojans drew through a breach of 
the walls into the city. One charactenstic circum- 
stance is mentioned by Virgil, namely, that alter 
the snakes had destroyed their victims, they glided 
off to the temple, and sheltered themselves under 
the feet and buckler of the goddess ; " Sub pedi- 
busque deae clypeique sub orbe teguntur:" and this 
leads us to glance at the antiquity and prevalence 
of serpent-worship, for it would appear that these 
animals were regarded as genii, either of good or 
evil, and to be either reverenced or propitiated. 

The Egyptians, as is well known, deified various 
species Herodotus notices the Cerastes, which he 
erroneously calls harmless ; when dead, these snakes 
were, he says, interred within the precincts of the 
temple of Jupiter Ammon and dedicated to that god. 
Another species, the Haje, or Cobra de capello, was 
assumed as the emblem of Cneph, or the good deity 
(6 a7a0os 8cu>v), and among the bronze rehcsin the 
British Museum are figures of this snake with its 
expanded hood, and which were apparently some of 
the penates or household gods. It is also clear that 
the Egyptians were in the habit of sacrificing human 
beings to serpents ; for in the tomb first discovered 
bv Belzoni in Thebes, is a representation thus de- 
scribed by Dr. Richardson ('Travels along ihe 
Mediterranean,' vol. i.) : " Here a human sacrifice 
.tares us in the face ; three human beings rest upon 
their knees with their heads struck off; the attitude 
in which they implored for mercy is that in which 
they met their doom, and the serpent opposite erects 
his crest, on a level with their throats, ready to 
drink the stream of life as it gurgles from their 
veins." The executioner is a priest, which concurs 
with other circumstances to show beyond dispute 
the religious character of the exhibition. 

The sacred figure of the circle, wings, and serpent 
occurs in many of the monumental remains of Upper 
Egypt, and is represented abundantly among the 
sacred symbols. 

To say nothing of the Babylonians and other 
people of antiquity who reverenced the serpent as an 
agathod»mon, or good genius, there are proofs of a 
like superstition in Qreece and Italy. Fig. 224o is 
the copy of a terra-cotta of Etruscan workmanship, 
in the Townley Gallery (Brit. Mus.), representmg a 

• The KrpenM ve artirti', not natanillrt.' wrpenU ; il il strange 
tli« h. who could copy .0 well the human fllture could not work oat 
the form of a arakf. 

Vol. 11. 



female, perhaps the goddess Hygeia, feeding a ser- 
pent. Fig. 2246 is one of many similar representa- 
tions at Pompeii, in which the lares or household 
gods are delineated in the form of serpents brooding 
over an altar. It is from a painting in the kitchen 
of a first-rate house, and the upper part of the tablet 
represents a sacrifice in honour of those serpent- 
deities, whose protection and custody over the pro- 
visions and cooking utensils are indicated by the 
border figures. We may also state that a picture 
found in'Herculaneum represents a serpent twined 
round an altar, from which it is taking its food, 
with a youth apparently worshipping it ; the in- 
scription is " Genius hujus loci montis. ' Similar 
representations are common. The Greeks, accord- 
ing to Justin Martyr, introduced the serpent into all 
their mysteries ; and not only had the walls of Athens 
the snaUe-encircled head of Medusa sculptured upon 
them, but a live serpent was kept in the Acropolis. 
Fi"- 2247 is a portion of the Egyptian painting 
prevwusly alluded to, exhibiting human sacrifices to 
a serpent ; and Fig. 2248 represents several sacred 
symbols of the Egyptians, in which the serpent is 
conspicuous. It will be remembered that the Is- 
raelites worshipped a brazen serpent (seraph) till it 
was broken by Hezekiah. In Hindoo mythology 
this animal also has a place, and according to Colo- 
nel Briggs cobras are sometimes kept and wor- 
shipped in temples, where they are pampered with 
milk and sugar, by the priests, and become very 

Tf we turn to the New Worid, we find that in 
Mexico and South America snake-worship was com- 
mon. The ancient Mexicans in particular paid 
homage to the mighty boa, and not only had ser- 
pent idols of fine workmanship, but living boas of 
monstrous size were kept tame by the priests and 
doubtless not without human victims ; for Bullock 
in his ' Six Months in Mexico,' speaks of a great 
serpent-idol of good workmanship, and almost per- 
fect in the cloisters behind the Dominican convent, 
represented in the act of swallowing a human vic- 
tim which is seen crushed and struggling in its 
horrid jaws. To the worship of the boa we shall 
again allude when we come to notice that reptile. 

We shall now pass on to our pictorial specimens 
of the ophidian race ; beginning with the non- 
venomous. 
Family COLUBRID^ (COLUBRINE SNAKES). 



2249 (6), 2250.— The Ringed Snake 
(Natrix torquata, Ray). Tropidonotus Natrix, Kuhl ; 
Coluber Natrix, Linn. As an example of the Colu- 
bridffi we may adduce the common ringed snake of 
our island and Europe generally. The head in this 
genus is distinct, oblong-ovate, depressed, and co- 
vered above with scuta ; the gape is wide ; the body 
lon<' and slender ; the squamae are imbricate, lan- 
ceolate, and generally carinated ; the abdominal 
scuta are simple; those under the tail double or 
biserial. Fig. 2251 represents the Head and lail ol 
the Common Snake. 

Fig ''•'49 exhibits— a, the Common Adder ; b, the 
Ringe'd'Snake, by way of comparison : they are our 
only two true ophidian reptiles. 

The ringed snake is very harmless, and may be 
readily tamed; it is abundant in low moist woods, 
damp meadows, and hedge-rows, especially in the 
vicinity of water, to which it delights to resort, and 
in and around which its favourite food, the frog, is 
alwavstobe procured. It often frequents gardens 
attracted by the warmth of hotbeds and heaps ot 
manure, in which the females deposit their eggs; 
for the same reason, as we can personally testily, 
snakes often frequent the sides and bases ol lime- 
kilns composed of large rough masses of stone and 
turf, forming a thick mound, between the crevices 
of which they habitually conceal themseves and lay 
their eeES. White, in his ' History of Selborne, 
complains that snakes lay chains of eggs every sum- 
meT?n his melon-beds. In spite of all that can be 
Ze to prevent them: the eggs, he adds, do not 
hatch till the spring following; hence it follows 
that where they are not laid in such places as ma- 
nufe-heaps, or fn the crevices of limekilns as above 
noticed, and so subjected to what may be termed 
ariificial heat regularly kept up, they have to un- 
de go the natural cold of our winter In al cases 
moft probably they are so secured as to be delend^ 
against severe frost. The eggs are invested with a 
membrane, and are eighteen or twenty in number, 
wnnected together, by a glutinous matter, in a 

'°T'hf snaV; ^wims well and very gracefully, with 
the head arched above the surface, and, as we have 
witnessed, it can remain a considerable time below. 
Us probable that snakes pursue frogs and water- 
sh ew^s°n this element; but they also delight in ,t 
for we have watched them swimmmg about without 
anv aVparent object beyond the pleasure of the 
bath Thave alio known them take to the water in 
order' to escape when chased. In this fondness for 



water the snake differs from the blindworm, which 
avoids it, and from the viper, which prefers dry lo- 
calities, seldom if ever voluntarily attempting to 
swim. 

The snake is very voracious, and pursues its prey 
with great determination. It feeds on mice, nestling 
birds, and frogs, especially the latter, of which it is 
a great destroyer. We have several times seen 
snakes in the act of swallowing a frog, their jawg 
forced asunder, their neck swollen, and so absorbed 
in their laborious efforts to ingulf their prey, all the 
while alive, that they have made no attempt to es- 
cape. In taking the frog, the snake generally seizes 
one of the hind-legs, and first draws it in, then the 
whole body, portion after portion, till the whole dis- 
appears. This in-drawing of the prey is not an act 
of simple suction, but is connected with the me- 
chanism of the jaws, of which the bones are dis- 
tinct, being united together, and to the cranium, 
only by elastic ligaments. "This plan" ensures the 
necessary dilation of the mouth, for the prey swal- 
lowed generally exceeds the circumference of the 
snake ; and next, allows the opposite side of each 
jaw, above and below, the power of independent 
motion : the upper jaw on each side has two rows 
of sharp teeth ; the lower jaw has one row. The 
process is as follows : — The frog being seized, the 
snake advances as far as possible the corresponding 
branches of the upper and lower jaw of one side, fix- 
ing the teeth into the skin of the victim ; this done, 
and a secure hold taken, it advances the branche* 
of the opposite side, and so on alternately till the 
whole is gradually forced into the gullet, stretched 
almost to bursting. The poor frog is swallowed 
alive, and has been distinctly heard to utter its pe- 
culiar cry of distress some minutes after having 
been swallowed : this piteous cry it utters when 
chased by the snake, of which it has an instinctive 
terror ; when fairly seized, however, it gives itself 
up to its fate, and seldom attempts to struggle. Mr. 
Bell relates a curious circumstance of two snakes 
seizing one the hind-leg, the other the fore-leg of 
the same frog, and continuing their inroads upon 
the victim till their upper jaws met, and they bit 
each other in turn. After one or two such accidents, 
the most powerful of the snakes commenced shaking 
the other, which still had hold of the frog, with 
great violence from side to side. In a short time 
the other returned the attack, and this was repeated 
till the one which had the slightest hold was regu- 
lariy shaken off, when the victor swallowed his prey 
in quiet. The contest being over, a frog given to 
the unsuccessful combatant was immediately seized 
and swallowed. In taking birds, lizards, &c., the 
snake swallows them head foremost. After gorging 
its food it becomes lethargic, and continues in astate 
of inaction till the whole is digested, when it seeks 
a fresh supply. 

A celebrated naturalist, M. Schlegel, has ventured 
an opinion that snakes never drink : this is far 
from being correct. Dr. Cantor observes that the 
greater number of Indian serpents are partial to the 
water, and with the exception of the tree-snakes, 
not only drink, but moisten the tongue, which, as 
this organ is not situated immediately in the cavity 
of the mouth, becomes two different acts. The same 
has been observed respecting African serpents, and 
the same applies to our common snake. Not only 
does it drink, but it is extremely partial to milk : 
Mr. Bell states that a tame one in his possession was 
accustomed to come to his hand every morning for 
a draught of milk, which it did of its own accord, 
and both in England and on the Continent it is ac- 
cused of invading the precincts of the dairy in order 
to obtain its favourite beverage. Latreille says, 
" It is asserted that it is very fond of milk, and that 
it even makes its way into dairies for the purpose of 
drinking what is kept there, and further, that it 
sucks the teats of cows and sheep." The latter part 
of the story is decidedly the offspring of ignorance, 
but we believe the former part. We have heard it 
frequently affirmed by persons in the country, that 
snakes invade dairies for the sake of the milk, and 
that they have themselves witnessed them in the act 
of drinking it. Latreille states that this species 
sometimes'surprises young birds ; "for it climbs very 
easily : sometimes it suspends itselffrom the branches 
of trees, twisting its tail around them ; sometimes it 
hooks on by means of its head placed between the 
forks of a twig." We have seen, on more occasions 
than one, the snake entwined in the midst of the 
close-locked branches of an old hedge, but we do 
not believe that it ever climbs trees, nor does its 
long, slender, fine-drawn tail appear, as far as our 
experience goes, to possess that grasping power so 
remarkable in the short tail of the boa or python ; 
neither does it kill its prey by entwining them in its 
coiis. When irritated, the snake hisses, vibrates its 
" double tongue," and elevates its head ; its eyes 
sparkle, its body swells, and it emits a disgusting 
odour. It is, however, a timid animal, and is disposed 
rather to escape than oppose an enemy. That it 
can be tamed numerous experiments prove, and fur- 




tMii—LuKoon in Ow Ooili of Sukes. 





2241, SHI, 2Si3.— Skull of Python. 




**«. — From tlie Tovnley Gallery. 



108 



M3».-SkeIeton of Boa Comttictot. 





2248.— Stised Symbols of the Ancient Egyptians. 



2247.— E»jptian» offering Bnnuin Sacrifice to Serpents. 





2252,— Oddea Tree Smal e. 



2249.— Common Adder and Kinged Soalie. 





Z2il, — Head and Tall of Common Snake. 




2246.— Serpent-worship : from Pompeii. 



109 



no 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Boas. 



thcr, that it acquires feeling* of attachment to its 
protector. This was the case with one in Mr. Bell s 
possession, which when let out of its box would 
come to him and crawl under the sleeve of his coat, 
for the sake of the warmth. In the collection of the 
Zoological Society is the preserved skin of a snake 
which lived eleven years tame in the possession of 
a Mr. Christman, to whom it showed great attach- 
ment. " It is brought up," says Latreille, " in houses, 
and appears to be not insensible of the kind atten- 
tions of those who caress it, sippina: saliva from their 
lipa, and delighting to conceal itself under their 
dress, twining, without doing any injury, round 
their arms or neck. In Sardinia the young women, 
according to Laccp^de, tame the ringed snake, feed 
it themselves, putting into its mouth the food they 
have prepared ; and the inhabitanU of the country 
regard these snakes as animals of good omen, suffer 
them freely to enter their houses, and would think 
that they had driven fortune away if they had put to 
flight these innocent little creatures." (' Hist. Nat. 
des Reptiles.') 

Like all the rest, the ringed snake sheds its cuticle, 
assuming a more vivid colouring. The frequency 
of this change depends on the state of health and 
feeding of the animal. Mr. Bell states that he has 
known it cast its slough four or five times during the 
year; it is always thrown off by reversing it, the rent 
taking place at the neck : before this change the 
snake is inactive and blind, the cuticle covering the 
surface of the eyes, and which is shed with the rest, 
becoming opaque ; the whole slough is perfect, the 
animal slipping out, and assisting itself by creeping 
through thick brushwood. 

The snake passes the winter in a state of torpidity, 
choosing for a place of hybernation some sheltered 
retreat, either under decayed masses of wood, in 
the hollow roots of an aged tree, or beneath dense 
brushwood and dried herbage : here numbers often 
collect, coiling themselves together for the sake of 
preserving a due degree of temperature. 

The ringed snake seldom exceeds three feet in 
length, though we have seen continental specimens 
approaching four feet. 

The Prince of Canino, in his work on European 
reptiles, describes eighteen distinct species, besides 
varieties, exclusive of the present snake, as natives 
of the Continent ; of these the largest is the Elaphis 
quadrilineatus, which often attains to six feet in 
length. It is a native of Italy and Spain, and is pro- 
bably the boa of Pliny. 

We now come to certain snakes of arboreal habits, 
forming the group or subfamily Leptophina of Mr. 
Bell. They are characterized by their extreme 
length, slenderness, and flexibility. The eyes are 
large ; the gape is wide ; the dorsal scales are oval, 
those of the tail very small. 

With respect to these arboreal serpents Mr. Bell 
observes, that they all " live in woods, entwining 
themselves amongst the branches of the trees, and 
gliding with great rapidity and elegance from one 
to another. These habits, combined with the grace- 
ful slenderness of their form, the beautiful metallic 
reflexion from the surface in some species, and the 
bright and changeable hues in others, place them 
amongst the most interesting of the serpent tribe. 
Their food consists of large insects, young birds, &c., 
which the extraordinary size of the head, the width 
of the gape, and the great dilatability of the neck 
and body enable them to swallow, notwithstanding 
the small size of these parts in a state of rest: in a 
specimen in my possession of Dryinus auratus, for 
instance, the length of which is four feet nine inches, 
the diameter of the neck is hardly two lines. 

" When the skin is distended either by food or 
during inspiration, the scales are separated from 
each other, and the skin,, which is of a different co- 
lour, becomes visible in the interstices, producing a 
curious reticulated appearance. Notwithstanding 
the poisonous mark was affixed by Linnaeus to the 
only species of Dryinus known to him (Coluber myc- 
terizans), it is well ascertained that they are all of 
them perfectiv harmless ; and it is asserted of that 
species, that the children are in the habit of taming 
and playing with it, twining it round their necks and 
arms, and that the snakes appear pleased at being 
this caressed." 

I 2252.— Thb Goldks Tree-Snakk 

(Dryinus auratus). This beautiful species is a na- 
tive of Mexico ; its general colour is yellowish grey, 
gleaming with a pale golden hue, and dotted with 
whitish and black. Mr. Bell records three species 
of this genus as American, two natives of India, 
and one of Java. One of the Indian species, D. 
nasutus, is remarkable for a snout-like, slender, 
moveable appendage projecting from the muzzle, 
which in all is elongated and acute. 

2233. — Thk Purplk Lkptophis 
(Leptophis purjnirascens). This species is a native 
of India. Its colour is violet passing into green. 



with a golden lustre ; a lateral and dorsal line of a 
paler hue. Head obtuse. 

Three species of this genus are Indian, one Ame- 
rican ; two species are Australian. 

2254.— Thk Boiga 
(Dendrophis AliatuUa). In this genus, which is 
confined to India and Africa, the head is very 
slender, the eye large, the gape wide ; the scales 
along the flanks are narrow, appearing as if placed 
in oblique lines, while those along the ridge of the 
back are large. In our illustration, a shows the 
characters of the head and lateral scales, and b the 
disposition of the subcaudal plates. 

The Boiga is a native of Borneo, and is distin- 
guished for slenderness, activity, and beauty. The 
upper part of the body is blue with a metallic lustre, 
passing into emerald green ; a rich golden stripe runs 
down the spine, and another along each side. A black 
streak is behind each eye, and below this a white 
stripe occupies the edge of the upper jaw ; under 
parts blue. The Boiga, says Latreille, darts with 
arrow-like rapidity, throws itself instantaneously into 
folds, ascends the trees with the greatest facility, and 
there wreathing itself amidst the branches, displays 
the golden azure of its scales, glittering in the sun. 
It is very gentle, and the children of Borneo play 
with it, and suffer it to twine aroimd their limbs or 
body.; 

2255.— Thb Dipsas 
(Dipsas cyanadon). In this genus the slender form 
and dispositiiin of the scales is much the same as in 
Dendrophis, but the body is greatly compressed, and 
the head large, far exceeding the slender neck to 
which it is attached. The species are all harmless 
and arboreal. The genus Dipsas of Laurenti is 
synonymous with the genus Bun^arus of Oppel, but 
not of Daudin, the latter appropnating it to a genus 
of venomous snakes. The ancients applied the term 
dipsas to a snake supposed to produce by its bite a 
burning thirst, the precursor of death. 

We now pass from the arboreal to other forms of 
the colubrine family. 

225G. — The Capb Lycodon 
{Lycodon Capensis, Smith). This is a harmless 
little snake about fourteen inches long, a native 
of South Africa, living in damp situations, where 
decayed masses of wood and vegetable matters 
afford it easy means of concealment; for, as Dr. 
Smith observes, it is not endowed with the power of 
eifecting rapid movements. " When," says that 
naturalist, speaking of an individual captured among 
decayed wood near a small stream, " by the removal 
of some rotten masses the reptile was exposed, it 
moved slowly among the remaining ones in search 
of a place of concealment, and when it was inter- 
rupted in its advance it simply coiled itself up, 
without manifesting any disposition to resist the 
opposition offered ; a similar course I had pre- 
viously observed others of the same species pursue, 
when attempts were made to secure them, nor did 
they appear much in fear of their assailants." 

2257. — The OutAR Cakron 
(Acrochordus Javanicus). Oular Carron of the 
Javanese. 

Though the only known species of the genus, this 
extraordinary serpent is the type of a distinct family 
(Acrochordidae, " Les Acrochordes" of Cuvier). 
It is easily distinguished by the head being covered 
with small scales, as is also the whole of the body, 
but they are separate from one another, and each is 
marked with three small ridges ; hence when it dis- 
tends its lungs and body with air, the skin seems as 
if beset with minute tubercles at a considerable 
distance asunder ; the body is thick, enlarging gra- 
dually as it proceeds, and then abruptly contracting 
at the base of the tail, which is short and slender. 
The tongue is short and thick. The general colour 
is black above, greyish white beneath and on the 
sides, which latter are spotted with black. It 
averages from six to ten feet in length. An indi- 
vidual exceeding eight feet was procured in Java 
by Hornstedt ; it was a female, and when opened 
was found to contain five young ones perfectly 
formed, and about nine inches long. It was cap- 
tured in a plantation of pepper, and the Chinese 
who accompanied Hornstedt cooked and ate its 
flesh, which they slated to be delicious. The 
stomach contained a quantity of half digested fruit, 
whence it has been inferred that, contrary to the 
rule among ophidian reptiles, it is of frugivorous 
habits. Cuvier, indeed, says, " Hornstedt a avanc6 
a tort qu'elle vit de fruits, ce qui serait bien extra- 
ordinaire dans un serpent." But with deference to 
so great an authority, we may observe that no one, 
knowing only the general habits of the Saurian rep- 
tiles, but not acquainted with certain species that 
feed on leaves, would regard the iguana as herbi- 
vorous until the fact was aicertained ; and so may 



this snake be equally herbivorous, though tlie rest 
are carnivorous. 

Family BOIDjB (BOAS, PYTHONS). 

The Boids are huge snakes confined to the hotter 
regions of the globe, and formidable from their vast 
strength and mode of attack. They lurk in ambush 
and dart upon their victim, which in an instant is 
seized and enveloped in their folds, and crushed to 
death or strangled. For their predatory habits they 
are admirably adapted ; their teeth (see Fig. 2258, 
head of Boa canina) are terrible, and produce a dread- 
ful wound : the neck is slender, the body increasing 
gradually to about the middle in diameter, and then 
decreasing. The tail is a grasping instrument, 
strongly prehensile, and aided by two hook-like 
claws, sheathed with horn, externally visible on 
each side, beneath, just anterior to the base of the 
tail (see Fig. 2259, the under part of the base of 
the tail in the Boa canina). Though externalljr 
nothing beyond these spurs appear, internally is 
found a series of bones, representing those of the 
hinder limbs, but of course imperfectly developed ; 
yet they are acted upon by powerful muscles, and 
can be so used as to form a sort of antagonist to the 
tail while grasping any object ; they thus become a 
fulcrum giving additional force to the grasp, which 
secured thereby to a fixed point, gives double power 
to the animal's energy. These limbs removed are 
seen at Fig. 2260 : a represents the left limb of the 
boa seen anteriorly ; b, the same limb seen pos- 
teriorly ; a, the tibia or leg-bone ; b, the external 
bone of the tarsus ; c, the internal bone of the tar- 
sus ; d, the bone of the metatarsus ; e, the claw- 
bone. Fig. 2261 represents the tail of the boa with 
its rudimentary limb on one side in situ with the 
muscles exposed : a, the vent; h, the hook or spur 
on the left side ; c, the subcutaneous muscle ; d, ribs 
and intercostal muscles ; e, transverse muscle of the 
abdomen ; f, bone of the leg enveloped in its 
muscles; g, abductor muscle of the foot ; h, abductor 
muscle of the same. Hot mora'sses, swamps, the 
borders of rivers, and the tangled underwood of 
dank forests, are the favourite spots which these 
formidable serpents haunt ; often half floating in 
the water, concealed amidst luxuriant herbage, with 
the tail grasping some branch or adjacent tree, they 
wait for their prey ; the footsteps of their unsus- 
pecting victim are heard as it comes to quench its 
thirst ; the snake raises his head, glances upon his 
prey, then instantly lowers it, and prepares for the 
attack ; all is silent, the creature draws near — it 
stoops to drink ; suddenly, like a flash of lightning, 
the snake darts upon it ; the water is lashed to foam ; 
a cry of pain and terror, and all again is silent ; the 
animal is quivering in the coils of the mighty snake ; 
its life is soon crushed out. And now, gradually 
relaxing his accumulated folds and knots, the monster 
I disengages himself and prepares to gorge the prey; 
he glides round it with eyes glaring upon it ; ever and 
anon he touches it with his bifid quivering tongue, 
and soon commences to draw it in, beginning at the 
head, which first disappeai-s ; the mouth drips with 
a glutinous saliva : the jaws are all distorted ; the 
working of each is visible, and also of the muscles 
of the head and throat ; the skin of the neck is 
stretched, and appears as if it would burst the next 
instant, yet still the operation proceeds : so lost 
now is the snake to everything else, that it may be 
approached, struck, or even wounded, without ceasing 
its efforts, which increase with the difficulty occa- 
sioned by the bulky body of its prey. By slow and 
most energetic efforts, the whole at last is gorged ; 
and now the bloated monster quietly seeks his ac- 
customed retreat, and coiling himself round, sinks 
into a torpid state, which continues for a month ; 
when, reanimated and with renewed vigour he leaves 
his lair, and issues forth to lurk again in ambush, 
and seize another victim. 

Not only quadrupeds, but even large fishes fall a 
prey to these serpents ; they dart upon the latter as 
they approach the surface of the water, and drag 
them ashore. The Boidae indeed swim with great 
rapidity ; but they climb trees, and, as Hernan- 
dez says, vibrate to and fro, being fixed by the 
tail to a branch, " snatching men and boys and other 
animals of that kind, and sometimes devouring 
them whole." 

The species of the restricted genus Boa are all 
natives of the tropical regions of America, and are 
characterized by the plates on the under surface of 
the tail being single. All are most beautifully 
coloured, and gleam in the sun. 
Among the principal species are the following: — 

2262.— The Emperor Boa 

(Boa constrictor). Le Devin, Daudin ; Constrictor 
formosissimus ; Constrictor Rex Serpentium ; Con- 

j stricter Auspex: Constrictor Diviniloquus. The 
latter names plainly indicate the superstitious feel- 

' ings with which it was regarded by the Mexicans. 



Pythons.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



Ill 



2283. — The Anaconda 

(Boa sq/tcde). Boa murina, Linn. ; Boa aquatica. 

Prince Maxim. Mr. Bennet observes, that the term 

Anaconda appears to be of Ceylonese origin, and 

^ he applies it to the Python Tigris ; we, however, 

■> follow Ciivier and most naturalists, who appropriate 

'■ it to the present species. 

2264.— The Bojobi 

{Boa canina). Boa viridis, Boddart; Boa thalas- 
sina, Laurenti. 

2265.— The Aboma 

(Boa cenchria, Linn.). Boa cenchris, Gmel. ; Boa 
cenchrya, Prince Maxim. 

In Boa constrictor the head is covered to the end 
of the muzzle with small scales like those of the 
body; there are no pits in the plates along the 
jaws. 

In Boa scytale the head has scaly plates from the 
eyes to the end of the muzzle ; no pits on the jaw- 
plates. 

In the Boa canina there are plates on the muzzle ; 
the sides of the jaw have a kind of slit under the eye 
and beyond it. 

In Boa cenchria there are scaly plates on the 
muzzle, and pits or dimples upon the plates of the 
jaws. 

Endowed with powers which in a semi-civilized 
state of society must operate powerfully on the 
mind ; at ease and freedom alike on the land, in the 
water, or among the trees : at once wily, daring, and 
irresistible in their attack, graceful in their move- 
ments, and splendid in their colouring, — that such 
creatures, to be both dreaded and admired, should 
become the objects of superstitious reverence, is 
scarcely to be wondered at. The ancient Mexicans 
regarded the boa as sacred ; they viewed its actions 
with religious horror; they crouched beneath the 
fiery glance of its eyes ; they trembled as they 
listened to its long-drawn hiss, and from various 
signs and movements predicted the fate of tribes or 
individuals, or drew conclusions of guilt or inno- 
cence. The supreme idol was represented encircled 
and guarded by sculptured serpents, before which 
were offered human sacrifices. 

** On a blue throne, with four huge silver snakes. 
As if the keepers of the sanctuary. 
Circled, with stretching neck and fangs display'd, 
Mexitii sate ; another graven snake 
Belted with scales of gold his monster bulk." 

bUUTHEV. 

Often, however, the divinity was represented in 
the form of a huge serpent, with a human victim in 
his coils, or half ingulfed in his horrid jaws ; and 
the priests had tame boas of great size, with which 
they were familiar, and which they suffered to 
wreath round them, and thereby inspiring the 
people with wonder, fear, and servile obedience. 
Finely has the late Dr. Southey, in his poem of 
Madoc, depicted such an exhibition and its effects. 
Neolin, the priest of the snake-god, is a prisoner in 
the hands of Madoc and his party, when 

** Forth from the dark recesses of the cave 
The serpent came ; the Hoamen at the sight 
Shoutecf ; and they who held the priest, appall'd, 
Relaxed their hold. On came the miglity snake. 
And twined in many a wreath round Neolin, 
Darting aright, alefk, his sinuous neck, 
With searching eve and lilted jaw, and tongue 
Quivering ; and hiss as of a heavy shower 
Upon the summer rvoods. The Britons stood 
.\atounded at the powerful reptile's bulk, 
And that strange sight. His girth was as of man, 
But easily could he have overtopp'd 
Goliath's helmed he^d ; or that huge king 
Of Basan, hugest of the Anakim. 
What tlien was human strength if once involv'd 
W'ithin those dreadful coils! The multitude 
Fell prone and worshipp'd." 

It is probably of the boa constrictor, the emperor, 
the devin, that Hernandez writes, under the name 
of Temacuilcahuilia, so called fiom its powers, the 
word meaning a fighter with five men. It attacks, 
he says, those it meets, and overpowers them with 
such force, that if it once coils itself around their 
necks it strangles and kills them, unless it bursts 
itself by the violence of its own efforts ; and he 
states that the only way of avoiding the attack is 
for the man to manage in such a way as to oppose 
a tree to the animals constriction, so that while the 
serpent supposes itself to be crushing the man, it 
may be torn asunder by its own act, and so die. 
We do not ask our readers for their implicit faith in 
this. He adds that he has himself seen serpents as 
thick as a man's thigh, which had been taken young 
by the Indians and tamed ; they were provided with 
a cask strewn with litter in the place of a cavern, 
where they lived, and were for the most part quies- 
cent, except at meal-times, when they came forth, 
and amicably climed about the couch or shoulders 
of their master, who placidly bore the serpent's em- 
brace. They often coiled up in folds, equalling a 
large cart-wheel in size, and harmlessly received 
their food. In most accounts current respecting the 
mode in which boas and pythons take their food, the 
snake, after crushing its prey, is described as hcking 



the body with its tongue and lubricating it with 
saliva, in order to facilitate the act of deglutition. 
It has been observed with justice, that few worse in- 
struments for such a purpose than the slender dark 
forked tongue of these snakes could have been con- 
trived; and that, in fact, the saliva does not begin 
to be poured out abundantly till required to lubri- 
cate the jaws and throat of the animal straining to 
ingulf the carcass. We have seen these snakes 
take their food, but they did not lubricate it, though 
the vibratory tongue often touched it; we must, 
therefore, withhold our credence from the common 
assertion. 

The size attained bv the boa is often very great, 
and larger individuals than any now seen occurred 
formeriy, before their ancient haunts had been in- 
vaded by human colonization. One killed in Suri- 
nam by Captain Steadman, though asserted by the 
natives to be young, measured upwards of twenty- 
two feet in length, and yielded four gallons of fine 
oil, exclusive of as much or more wasted. 

A specimen apparently of the Boa scytale, called 
in Venezuela "La Culebra de Agua," or water- 
serpent, and also "El Traga Venado," or deer- 
swallower, which measures nineteen feet and a half 
in length, was presented by Sir Robert Ker Porter 
to the United Service Museum. He states that ' ' The 
flesh of this serpent is white and abundant in fat. 
The people of the plains never eat it, but make use 
of the fat as a remedy for rheumatic pains, ruptures, 
strains, &c." 

"This serpent," says Sir R. K. Porter, "is not 
venomous nor known to injure man (at least not in 
this part of the New World) ; however, the natives 
stand in great fear of it, never bathing in waters 
where it is known to exist. Its common haunt, or 
rather domicile, is invariably near lakes, swamps, 
and rivers ; likewise close wet ravines produced by 
inundations of the periodical rains : hence, from its 
aquatic habits, its first appellation. Fish, and those 
animals which repair there to drink, are the objects 
of its prey. The creature lurks watchfully under 
cover of the water, and, whilst the unsuspecting 
animal is drinking, suddenly makes a dash at the 
nose, and with a grip of its back-reclining double 
range of teeth never fails to secure the terrified 
beast beyond the power of escape." 

It would appear that boas are apt to be carried 
out to sea by sudden floods, and are somo which the external pterygoids are 
articulated, we see them furnished with a row of 
ordinary simple teeth. 

The lower jaw is long and slender, and articulated 
to the skull by a long and slender tympanic and a 
slender mastoid bone, all moveable, whence the 
gape of the jaws is very wide. The lower jaw is 
armed anteriorly with simple teeth. 

With respect to the structure of the poison fangs, 
we must observe that they are so constructed as to 
enclose a tube or channel, leading from a large 
poison gland, and conveying the deadly fluid to the 
very bottom of the wound. This tube is not pierced 
through the substance of the fans:, but is exterior to 
it, and formed by a fold of its edges, which are .sol- 
dered together. This pecuiiarity is well described 
by Professor Owen, who observes that " a true idea 
of its structure may be formed by supposing the 
crown of a simple tooth, as that of a boa, to be 
pressed flat, and its edges to be then bent towards 
each- other, and soldered together, so as to form a 
hollow cylinder open at both ends. The flattening 
of the fang, and its inflexion around the poison duct, 
commence immediately above the base, and the 
suture of the inflected margins runs along the an- 
terior and convex side of the recurved fang : the 
poison canal is thus in front of the pulp cavity." 

Such is an outline of the structural peculiarities 
in the jaws of the more typical poisonous snakes, as 
Vipera, Naja, Crotalus, Trigonocephalus. In others, 
however, there is a row of teeth more or less nu- 
merous, behind the poison fangs, and in the upper 
maxillary bones. In all the family of marine ser- 
pents, the poison fang is only the foremost of a row 
of fixed maxillary teeth ; four or five in number on 
each side. Such is also the case in some of the 
terrestrial genera, as Bungarus, in which there are 



from three to five grooved teeth, behind the great 
fangs ; and in Hamadnr'as, the huge poisonous tree- 
snakes of India, in which the same peculiarity oc- 
curs. Hence Cuvier divides the venomous serpents 
into such as have isolated poison fangs, and into 
such as have other maxillary teeth also. 

Fig. 2273 represents the poison gland, its duct, 
and the fang of the Trigonocephalus : a, a, the 
Poison Gland; b, the Duct; c, the Fang; the letter 
indicates the position of the slit from which the 
poison passes into the wound. " The poison glands," 
says Professor Owen, " occupy the sides of the pos- 
terior half of the head ; each consists of a number 
of elongated narrow lobes, extending from the main 
duct, which runs along the lower border of the gland, 
upwards and slightly backwards; each lobe gives 
off lobules throughout its extent, thus presenting a 
pinnatifid structure; and each lobule is subdivided 
into smaller secerning caeca, which constitute the 
ultimate structure of the gland. The whole gland 
is surrounded by a double aponeurotic capsule, of 
which the outermost and strongest layer is in con- 
nection with the muscles by whose contraction the 
several cseca and lobes of the gland are compressed 
and emptied of their secretion. This is then con- 
veyed by the duct to the basal aperture of the 
poison canal of the fang. We may suppose that, as 
the lachrymal and salivary glands are most active 
during particular emotions, so the rage which sti- 
mulates the venom-snake to use its deadly weapon 
must be accompanied with an increased secretion, 
and great distention of the poison glands; and as 
the action of the compressing muscles is contempo- 
raneous with the blow by which the serpent inflicts 
its wound, the poison is at the same moment in- 
jected with force into the wound from the apical 
outlet of the perforated fang." 

It would appear that one venomous serpent can 
kill another by the bite, at least if it be of a distinct 
species : for it seems that individuals of the same 
species may bite each other with impunity. We 
believe also, that if in its rase a serpent bites itself, 
no symptoms are produced. Russell says that Cobras 
bite each other without any consequence ascribable 
to the poison, but they kill other snakes. 

The huge poisonous Hamadryas of India, often 
twelve feet in length, habitually preys upon other 
serpents, darting at them, and killing them by 
poison, after which it gorges them. The Naja of 
Southern Africa has been known to kill and swallow 
the poisonous puff-adder (Vipera arietans) ; and 
it is asserted that the rattle-snake will seize and 
kill the poisonous Moccasin snake, and afterwards 
swallow it. 

The poison of serpents acts more or less quickly 
and decidedly, according to the species, the vigour 
of the individual, the quantity thrown into the wound, 
and the season of the year. Contrary to what Fon- 
tana and M. Schlegel assert (who says it is neither 
acid nor alkaline), the poison of these reptiles turns 
litmus-paper red, invariably displaying acid pro- 
perties. (See Cantor, ' Zool. Proceeds.' 18.37, p. 75, 
note ; and Harlan, ' Med. and Phys. Research.' p. 
501, sq.) 

It is a remarkable fact that, as far as hitherto 
tested, the poison of snakes may be swallowed with 
impunity, provided there be no abrasion of the skin 
of the lips, or any part of the mouth ; hence when a 
person is bitten by one of the reptiles, the best way, 
if a cupping-glass be not at hand, or cannot be ap- 
plied, is to suck the wound as forcibly as possible. 
With this fact Celsus was well acquainted. His 
words are, " Those persons who are called Psylli 
have not indeed any special knowledge, but bold- 
ness confirmed by habit ; for the poison of a serpent 
is not injurious when tasted, but when instilled into 
a wound. Therefore, whoever, following the ex- 
ample of the Psyllus, will suck the wound, will be 
both safe himself, and save the sufferer. But this 
point must be fairly settled, that no ulcer be either 
in the gums, the palate, or any part of the mouth." 
With respect to the various specifics so confidently 
recommended, they are of no use. .Ammonia used 
as an internal medicine after the poison is drained 
from the wound, and the free application of olive 
oil, appear to be the most efficacious; the great aim 
must be to keep up the energies of the system ; to 
extract the poison, or neutralise if possible its active 
properties. 

I' ortunately only one poisonous snake, the bite of 
which is however seldom fatal, exists in our island, 
viz. the Viper. 

2276, 2277.— The Viper 

(Pelif's Bertis). Adder ; Vipera vulgaris, Latr. ; 
Vipeiii communis. Leach. 

The characters of the head are seen at Fig. 2278. 

The common viper is spread over Europe, and is 
tolerably frequent in many parts of England, giving j 
preference to dry woods, sandy heaths, peat lands I 
and sunny banks, and similar places. In Scotland ■ 
it is more numerous than the common snake. In 
some parts of Yorkshire vipers are abundant, and 



Vipjius. i 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



115 



they are so in all the chalk counties. Vipers vary 
ejii5iderab]v in colour ; hence we have the black 
vnier. the blue-bellied viper, the red viper, the com- 
mon viper, &c., which some naturalists have ven- 
tured to regard as distinct species^whereas the 
iiuth is they are mere vaiieties, as is now satisfacto- 
rily demonstrated. 

"Happily lor us. this is our only venomous reptile ; 
and, dreaded as it is, it is by no means so dangerous 
as reported. It never commences an attack, and 
turns to bite only when driven to self-defence or 
suddenly molested ; nor is its bite necessarily fatal. 
We have ourselves known persons bit by vipers — 
one a relative ; he was punctured on the thumb : 
the part swelled and inflamed, and the inflammation 
(wi;h considerable pain and constitutional irritation) 
ascended the absorbents to the axillary glands; with 
a little care, however, in a few days, every bad symp- 
tom v,as removed. We have, indeed, heard of cases 
in which death has resulted from a viper's bite, but 
we have never been able positively to authenticate 
an instance, though we are willing to admit that, as 
tlie effects are much more severe in some instances 
than in others, persons of a highly excitable or feeble 
temperament may have sunk under the action of 
the poison, especially if the animal was in full vigour 
and activity when it inflicted the wound. 

Small animals, as mice, rats, birds, &c., are im- 
mediately aftected by the poison, and soon perish. 
The viper often attempts to swallow prey too large 
to pass down the oesophagus. Mr. Bell has in his 
possession a small viper from Poole Heath, in Dor- 
s-etshire, which was taken in a dying state, having 
loiced down amouse, which had caused the skin of 
the ueck to burst in several places. Mr. J. C. Cox 
found a viper in the neighbourhood of Lausanne, 
which had swallowed a common lizard nearly as 
long as itself, and which had forced a hole through 
the side of the viper, one of its fore-legs protruding. 
(' Mag. Nat. Hist.,' 1838, p. 238.) 

The viper is ovoviviparous, the young being ex- 
cluded from the egg previously to parturition. So 
requisite is the heat of the sun for this develop- 
ment of the young, that the female viper may be 
often seen extended in the genial rays, basking with 
flattened body, and unwilling to remove from the 
spot on the approach of danger. The young vary 
in number from ten to twenty, and are alert and 
active from their birth. 

We have often heard it a.sserted, though we have 
never been able to verify the statement, that the 
young vipers when alarmed hastily retire within the 
mouth of their parent, and lodge in the stomach or 
oesophagus till the danser is passed. To this cir- 
cumstance Mr. Bell, in his work on British reptiles, 
makes no allusion. Mr. Blyth (See Loudon's ' Mag. 
Xat. Hist.,' 1837, p. 441) observes respecting it, " I 
have been informed of this by so many credible eye- 
witnesses, that 1 cannot hesitate in yielding implicit 
credence to the fact. One man particularly, on 
whose word I fully rely, tells me that he has himself 
seen as many as thirteen young vipers thus enter 
the mouth of their parent, which he afterwards 
killed, and opened for the purpose of counting them. 
The following extract shows that the habit is com- 
mon to other venomous serpents, all of which are, I 
believe, without exception, ovoviviparous. It is 
stated of the rattle-snake, in Hunter's ' Memoirs of a 
Captivity among the North American Indians,' that 
• when alarmed, the young ones, which are eight or 
ten in number, retreat into the mouth of the parent, 
and reappear on its giving a contractile muscular 
token that the danger is passed.' " Gilbert White 
says, " Several intelligent folks assure me that they 
have seen the viper open her mouth to admit her 
helpless young down the throat on sudden surprises, 
just as a female opossum does her brood into the 
pouch upon the like emergencies ; and yet the Lon- 
don viper-catchers insist on it to Mr. Barrington 
that no such thing ever happens." When evidence 
is thus contradictory, it is difficult to know what to 
believe. We have seen vipers oft. but we never 
saw the occurrence in question, nor do we know any 
naturalist who has himself seen it. Mr. Blyth, who 
devoted much time to the out-door study of our 
native animals, never witnessed it himself, though 
he believes it upon report. It has been well ob- 
served that much related concerning the habits of 
reptiles seems to be as confused as it is inexact. 
"Country-people, besides being inexact in their ac- 
counts (although their occupations afford them good 
and frequent opportunities for making observations), 
are seldom to be depended upon : they are not nice 
observers of that which does not immediately affect 
their concerns ; and disgust, or fiar, or indifference 
incapacitates them from taking accurate notice : and 
these feelings induce contradiction, confusion, and 
exaggeration. Viper-catchers may be better autho- 
rities, as from use they overcome the not unnatural 
repugnance to these animals ; but in their case, 
accuracy depends entirely upon individual intelli- 
gence, and, except the reporters be unexceptionable, 
their statements ought to be cautiously received." 
Vol. II, 



The viper hybernates, several entwining together 
in a deep hole, or other secure lurking-place, and 
passing tne winter in a state of torpidity. 

In many parts of England the viper is better 
known by the name of adder, anciently, says Mr. 
Bell, written nedre, and afterwards eddre ; it is from 
the Anglo-Saxon noedre, nether, lower — a far-fetched 
derivation, and we agree with Mr. J. Biadon that 
there is one much nearer at hand, viz. neidr, the 
ancient British and modern Welsh name for the 
reptile in question. In the plural form it is much 
more apparent, nadroedd, applied both to the viper 
and common snake. 

We shall conclude our observations on the viper 
by alluding to two singular superstitions connected 
with this reptile — perhaps not yet altogether passed 
away. From the earliest times the flesh of the viper 
was celebrated (like that of the skink, a kind of 
lizard) in the cure of various diseases, and is praised 
by Pliny and Galen. The ancients generally served 
the animal, boiled, like fish ; but in our country 
viper-broth was the preparation in request. In Eng- 
land these reptiles were caught by means of a stick 
with a fork or cleft at one end, for pinning the ani- 
mal down, just behind the head : the man then seized 
the struggling reptile by the tail, and put it into a 
bag : and in this way the shops of the apothecaries 
were supplied. 

Many persons have heard of the ovum anguinum 
of Pliny— the glein neidr of the ancient British — the 
adder-gem or adder-stone. These celebrated charms 
for curing various diseases are nothing more than 
antique blue, green, or striped glass beads of various 
sizes, and perforated. Pliny attributed their pro- 
duction to snakes convoluted together in summer, 
and notices the statement of the Druids with regard 
to their mystic production ; and Mason, in his ' Ca- 
ractacus,' gives this Druid's song : — 

" From tlie gr.it of charms and spells, 
Where our matron sister dwells, 
Brennns, has thy holy hand 
Safely brought the Druid wand. 
And tile potent Adder-stone, 
Gender'd 'fore the autumnal raoon ? 
When in undulating twine 
The foaming snaltes prolific join, 
^Vhen they hiss, and when they bear 
Their wondrous egg aloft in air ; 
Thence, before to eartii it fall, 
ITie Druid in bis hallowed pall 
Keceives the priie. 
And instant tlies 

Followed by the invenom'd brood. 
Till he cross the crystal flood." 

Pennant says, "Our modern Druidesses give much 
the same account of the ovum anguinum (Glein 
Neidr, as the Welsh call it ; or the adder-gem) as the 
Roman philosopher does ; but seem not to have so 
exalted an opinion of its powers, using it only to 
assist children in cutting their teeth, or to cure the 
hooping-cough, or drive away an ague." Some of 
these ancient beads are seen at Fig. 2279. 

A species of viper, called El EfFah (apparently 
identical with the Hebrew word " Ephah," translated 
viper), is described and figured in Jackson's ' Ma- 
roceo,' as one of the most common and venomous 
of serpents in North Africa and South-Western Asia. 
" It is about two feet long and as thick as a man's 
arm, beautifully spotted with yellow and brown, and 
sprinkled over with blackish specks. They have a 
wide mouth, by which they inhale a great quantity 
of air, and when inflated they eject it with such 
force, as to be heard to a considerable distance." 
He adds, that they abound in the desert of Suse, 
where their holes are extremely numerous. Capt. 
Riley, in his ' Authentic Narrative ' (1817), describes 
their colours as beautiful, and says that Jackson's 
engraving is very correct. 

Our Fig. 2280, copied from .lackson, represents 
this species, which is probably the Vipera ^gypti- 
aca of Latreille. 

2281. — The Unadorned Viper 

( Vipera [Echidna] inornata, Smith). In the sub- 
genus Echidna, the top of the head is wholly tsovered 
with small imbricated scales. 

The present species is a native of South Africa ; 
but little, according to Dr. Smith, is known of its 
habits, excepting that, like the other species of the 
genus, it is indolent and heedless of the approach of 
man ; indeed, he adds, the vipers, and one or two 
species of Eiaps, are the only snakes of South Africa 
which permit themselves generally to be approached 
without evincing any apparent concern ; the others 
manifest a disposition to act on the defensive, or fly. 
Even an unusual noise is sure to cause the retreat 
of the innocuous ones. The najas are always ready 
for fight, and when their haunts are invaded, acU 
vance upon the intruder with the head and anterior 
part of the body almost perpendicular, the neck 
expanded, and an expression sufficiently indicative 
of the malignant purpose they have in view. " To 
witness such a proceeding," he continues, "once fell 
to my own lot. Walking in the vicinity of Graham's 
Town, I happened to excite the attention ofaNaja 
Haemachates, which immediately raised its head, 



and warned me of my danger by the strength of its 
expiration ; it then commenced an advance, and 
had I not retired, I should in all probability have 
suffered, provided I had not been fortunate enough 
to disable it ; which probably would not have hap- 
pened, considering that the species, in common with 
others of the same genus, is extremely active. Even 
though I retired, I was not satisfied that the danger 
was past, as the flight of this snake's enemy does 
not always put a stop to its advance when once com- 
menced. An officer of the Cape Corps, upon whose 
authority the most implicit reliance was to be placed, 
informed me that he once was chased twice round 
his waggon by an individual of the same species, 
and the pursuit might have been prolonged had not 
a Hottentot disabled the enraged reptile by a blow 
from a long stick." 

The unadorned vijier is about thirteen inches in 
length : its general colour above is yellowish brown ; 
under parts dusky yellow sparingly sprinkled with 
brownish dots. 

2282. — The South African Cerastes 

(Cerastes caudalis, Smith). The genus Cerastes is 
distinguished among the vipers, by a little pointed 
horn rising from the upper margin of each eye. 

One species is a native of Egypt, Libya, &c., but 
the present was discovered in South Africa by 
Dr. A. Smith. In these snakes, the head is broad 
and very distinct from the neck, the body thick, the 
tail taper. Fig. 2283 represents the Head and Tail 
of Cerastes caudalis. 

This species inhabits dry sandy districts, and mani- 
fests the ordinary indolence of character common 
to the vipers ; on which account, says Dr. Smith, 
" they are more dreaded by the native of South 
Africa than even snakes possessed of more virulent 
poison, but disposed to action on the approach of 
clanger. According to good testimony, this species 
will continue for days together in one position, and 
as it never seeks to avoid danger, however imminent, 
its presence is rarely discovered unless when 
trampled upon, and the offending party is wounded 
by its fangs. Though inactive, it is by no means 
so when injured ; its movements are then performed 
with activity ; and when once it seizes the obnoxious 
object, it retains its hold with great determination, 
and some considerable exertion is often required to 
detach it. The same may be said of most of the 
vipers, in which respect they differ materially 
from naia." This species is about fourteen inches 
long. 

The upper parts are yellowish red, variously spotted 
and marked with orange brown and other tints. 
The under parts are pale rose red, with a pearly 
lustre. 

2284, 2285.— The Egyptian Cerastes 

(Cerastes; — Vipera cerastes). This species, as well 
as the Cobra or Haj6, was well known to the 
Egyptians of antiquity, and figures of it occur 
abundantly in their temples: it is this species be- 
yond doubt of which Herodotus speaks in the fol- 
lowing passage:— " There are about Thebes sacred 
serpents entirely innoxious to man ; they are of 
diminutive size, and have two horns sprouting from 
the crown of the head ; when they die, they are 
buried in the temple of Jupiter, to whom they are 
said to be sacred." Herodotus was in error in say- 
ing that these snakes are innoxious ; he had perhaps 
only examined fame ones, from which the poison 
fangs had been carefully extracted. 

In its manners this species precisely resembles 
the preceding : it inhabits the sandy desert, where 
in ruts or depressions it will lie quietly for days, 
luxuriating in the heat of the sun ; and as its colours 
assimilate with those of the surface on which it re- 
poses, there is danger of treading accidentally upon 
it, at the risk of a wound. 

It appears to have considerable powers of en- 
during hunger and thirst ; probably it never drinks : 
its food consists of insects, small reptiles, mice, &c. 

Bruce states that he kept two of these snakes in 
a glass jar for two years, without giving them any 
food ; they did not appear to become torpid in 
winter, and cast their slough at the close of April. 

Speaking of the partiality of these animals for 
heat, he says that though the sun was burning-hot 
all day, yet " when we made a fire at night by dig- 
ging a hole and burning wood to charcoal in it for 
dressing our victuals, it was seldom that we had 
fewer than half a dozen of these vipers, which burned 
themselves to death by approaching the embers." 
" The poison," he adds, " is very copious for so small 
a creature ; it is fully as large as a drop of lauda- 
num dropped from a phial by a careful hand. I 
compelled one to scratch eighteen pigeons upon 
the thigh, and all died in nearly the same interval 
of time. 

" The cerastes moves with great rapidity and in 
all directions, forwards, backwards, and sideways. 
When it inclines to surprise any one who is too far 
from it, it creeps with its side toward the person 

Q 2 




^jl^HB^nnhf^^ 



«na«-ii«A«rOHtNm. 





nAP) 




«^ 



tSni, — Tooth and Poison Gland of Trigonocephalui, 



nn.— Karoo Uokadam. 



ttrs Bmi of viper. 






«T*.— Addor-Stonei. 




2281.— Unadorned Viper. 






' 2274.-SkQll of Battlesnake. 



MTT.— Tipetaad Yoinj 




2283.— Head and Tail of Cerastes. 



Sm.— Viper. 





»k»j.— " El ElWi :" Viper. 



2m.— So ith AfHcan Cerastes. 



116 




cTr^ 






2886 Head of Naja. 




2990.— Indiu I^ja. 



22:iI.-Indian Na 




22S4.— Egyptian Cerastes . 




2285. — Kgvptiaa Ct-rastes. 





«28».— Hood of Sa:a. 




228T.— Hood of Naja. 




118 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Najas. 



«nd its head averted, till judf^nt: its distance, it turns 
round, springs upon him, and fastens upon the part 
next to it ; Vor it is not true that the cerastes does 
not leap or sprin([f.. I »aw one of them at Cairo 
crawl up the side of a box in which there were 
many, and there lie still as if bidinfr himself, till one 
of tho people who brought them to us came near 
him ; and though in a very disadvantageous posture, 
sticking as it were perpendicular to the side of the 
box, it leaped near thu distance of three feet, and 
fastened between the man's finger and thumb, so as 
to bring the blood. The fellow showed no signs 
either of pain or fear; and we kept him with us for 
full four hours without his applying any sort of 
remedy, or seeming inclined to do so. To make 
myself assured that the reptile was in its perfect 
state, I made the man hold it by the neck, so as to 
force open its mouth and lacerate the thigh of a peli- 
can, a bird as big as a swan. The bird died in about 
thirteen minutes, though it was apparently affected 
in about fifty seconds." As a proof of the power 
■which the snake-charmers have of handling poison- 
ous snakes with impunity, the same traveller says, 
" I have seen at Cairo a man who came from above 
the Catacombs, where the pits of the mummy-birds 
are, who has taken a cerastes with his naked hand 
from a number of others at the bottom of a tub, put 
it upon his bare head, and tie it about his neck like 
a necklace. After which it has been applied to a 
hen, and bit it, which has died in a few minutes : 
and to complete the experiment, the man has taken it 
by the neck, and beginning at the tail has eaten it as 
one would do a carrot or stock of celery, without any 
seeming repugnance." Brace's idea is that certain 
Arab tribes have the knowledge of some roots, the 
chewing of which, combined with a washing of the 
body with an infusion of the leaves in water, exempts 
them from the effects of the poison of these reptiles. 
But with regard to the Black people of Sennaar he 
suspects them to be naturally proof against the poi- 
son. His opinions on these points are unworthy 
serious consideration ; and we cannot help thinking 
with Cloquet, that he was credulous and imposed 
upon by the dexterity of jugglers. Those who have 
seen fire-eaters exhibit their tricks can easily imagine 
that a similar deception might be practised, substi- 
tuting a serpent for burning materials ; and as to 
the experiments, the substitution of a perfect for a 
fangless snake, and vice versS, by a dexterous hand, 
is about upon a par with the thimblerig game. Be- 
sides his details are anything but precise, nor do we 
wonder at it ; for when speaking about the poison 
glands he says, " I confess the danger attending the 
dissection of these parts made me so cautious that 
any observations I should make upon them would 
be the less to be depended upon." From this we 
may judge of his coolness when the living reptiles 
were creeping loose about him or writhing in the 
hands of jugglers. 

We now advance to a far more formidable group 
of serpents, the deadly Cobras, Najas or Naias, 
which nave been celebrated from the earliest times, 
and which are respectively distributed to Africa and 
India. 

In the genus Naja, or Naia, the head is covered on 
the top and sides with plates ; and the skin of the 
neck IS extremely dilatable, or capable of being 
expanded to such a degree as to form a thin hood, 
the scales during the expansion being thrown far 
apart, from the stretching of the skin. When 
irritated these snakes elevate the head and anterior 
portion of the body, expand their hood, hiss loudly, 
and with sparkling eyes advance resolutely towards 
their assailant ; in this attitude their appearance is 
very beautiful, and, were there no cause for alarm, 
might be contemplated with pleasure. An en- 
counter with an enraged naja is, indeed, no trifling 
ntfair, for though seldom more than five or six feet 
long, the reptile is bold and powerful, and springs 
on its foe with great velocity ; and, as its bite is 
mortal, its destruction the next moment cannot re- 
pair the mischief. In dealing with such creatures 
discretion is the better part of courage. Fig. 2286 
represents the Head of Naja ; a, the side view ; h, as 
•een from above : Fig. 2287, view of the upper side 
of the Hood expaniled, with the head on the same 
line with the body : Fig. 2288, a view of the under 
side of the same : Fig. 2289, the Head seen from 
behind, when the anterior portion of the excited 
serpent is in an erect posture. 

In the naja tripudians the hood is impressed 
behind with a mark somewhat resembling the cen- 
tral portion of a pair of spectacles reversed : it 
usually consists of a double reversed horseshoe line 
of black or brown, with the two ends dilated so as 
to enclose an oval space, in the centre of which is a 
ring or spot of black.. 

2290, 2291.— The Common I.sdian Naja 

{Naja tripudians). Cobra de Capello* of the Asiatic 
Portuguese ; Serpent i. lunettes of the French ; Spec- 

* TliU name is notr ginn indiflcRnUy lo all the hooded snake*. 



tacle Snake of the English ; Nag and Chinta Nagoo 
of the natives. 

This formidable snake attains to five, or even six 
feet in length ; Captain Percival, indeed, says that 
specimens occur in Ceylon as long as fifteen feet; 
but these specimens, we believe, will be found to 
belong to the genus Hainadryas. which we shall here- 
after notice, and of which the species, being hooded, 
go under the indiscriminate name of " Cobras :" 
tbey attain to very large dimensions, and are dread- 
fully venomous, and much feared. 

We have already spoken of the manner in which 
the naja expands its hood and advances to the com- 
bat ; and well, as Captain I'ercival says, is it that 
he gives the signal, as his motions afterwards are 
too rapid to be avoided ; and he adds, " I have 
more than once been an eye-witness to instances 
where the fatal bite of this snake was escaped 
merely by the object of his vengeance timely ob- 
serving his preparations. One remarkable quality 
of these dangerous serpents is their fondness for 
music ; even when newly caught they seem to listen 
with pleasure to the notes, and even to writhe them- 
selves into attitudes. The Indian jugglers improve 
greatly on this instinct, and after taming them by 
degrees, instruct them to keep time to their fla- 
geolet." 

The colour of these snakes is subject to some 
variation, and in Ceylon, according to Dr. Davy, 
those of a light colour are called high-caste snakes, 
those of a dark colour low-caste. " The natives," 
he says, " in general rather venerate this snake than 
dread it. They conceive that it belongs to another 
world,* and that when it appears in this it is merely 
as a visitor ; they imagine that it possesses great 
power, that it is somewhat akin to the gods, and 
greatly superior to man. In consequence they su- 
perstitiously refrain from killing it, and always avoid 
it, if possible. Even when they find one in their 
house, they will not kill it, but, putting it into a 
bag, throw it into water. They believe that this 
snake has a good and generous disposition, and that 
it will do no harm to man unless provoked." Dr. 
Davy gives a pleasing picture of the irritations and 
soothings with which the snake-charmers excite and 
allay the temper of this serpent, and records several 
instances of the operation of the poison. In one 
case a young cock was bitten in the thigh, and 
gradually sank, and perished in convulsions in about 
seventeen minutes. The firet symptoms consisted 
in the respiration becoming hurried and laborious, 
to which succeeded a comatose state ; the breathing 
then became scarcely perceptible, when four or five 
convulsive fits came on, each weaker than the other, 
the last proving fatal. 

A distinct species, found in Calcutta, Bombay, 
and Assam, and termed by Dr. Cantor the Masked 
Naja (Naja larvata), is described in the 'Zool. Pro- 
ceeds.' 1839, p. 32. It is of a brownish colour, with 
numerous faint transverse stripes; the hood is 
marked with a white ring, not unlike the form of 
a mask, behind which there are from three to five 
white rings ; the anterior part of the lower surface 
is marked with alternate white and bluish-black 
rings ; the posterior part is iridescent glaucous. 

A young specimen of this snake was living in 
1829 in the Society's Gardens, Regent's Park. The 
artificial temperature, G2? Fahr., in which it was 
kept, appeared to agree with it very well. Dr. 
Cantor observes that, in one respect, it offered in its 
habits a striking difference from those of the najas 
generally in captivity, for, as he was informed by the 
keeper, it feeds occasionally upon living frogs and 
earth-worms, and that it drinks milk; while those 
in Dr. Russell's possession, and also in his own, in 
India, when deprived of liberty invariably refused 
to take any kind of food. This must be taken with 
some exceptions, for Col. Briggs states that those 
kept by the priests in the temples are pampered 

• Dr. Dftvy.in his chapter on the Cingalese System of the Universe, 
has tlie following pas-s.i^e : — 'Hie Na^jii bhawenc, that lies under 
Asoora bhawene, is also 10,000 leagues in circumference. It is a 
hollow sphere, witiiout mountnins or hills, lakes or rivers, ami en- 
tirely destitute of vegetation, with the exception of a single tree, 
called Parasattoo, that answers for all others, bearing not only an im- 
mense variety of flowers and fruit", but everything else tliat is desii> 
able. Tlie N'oga-bhawenc is the abode of a numerous race of snakes, 
similar in kind to the hooded snake, and of great size, beauty, and 
power, capable of passing from one part of the world to another, and 
shining like.gods ; so that, though they have no W^ht but tliat which 
emanates ftrom their own iKidies, tliey enjoy perpetual day infinitely 
brighter than ours. In their former lives on earth they were persons 
of remarkable purity and gooflness, almost deserving of liecoming 
gods ; but their high virtues were sullied by some vice, particularly 
that of malice, to which thev owe their present forms. Though 
snakes, they are Ithoodists, and are in possession of a relic and wor- 
sliip in temples. Tliey reside in well-furnished houses, and eat and 
dri:ik, and enjoy society. By merely wishing, they immediately 
have any article of food they want : and whatever it may be, it always 
appears in tire form of a frog. Tliey are under a re^ai government, 
and are ilistriliuteil into castes, like the Cingalese. Their king, 
Maliakilla naga-rajsya, is in every respect superior to the rest; it 
WRs with his assistance that the gods and Asooras churned the milky 
sea; he wound himself round a rock, and tliey, pulling at his two 
extremities, set tlie mass in motion and accomplished their work. 
Were those snakes dispise<l, they could destroy the whole of the in- 
habitants of the earth by a fini^le blast of their poisonous breath ; 
but they are naturally mild and benevolent, and do harm only when 
provoked. In consequence they are rather venerated than dreaded : 
and it is on this account that the common hooded snake is so much 
KSpected." 



with milk and sugar, and will feed out of the hand 
as tamely as any domestic animal. 

2292, 2293, 2294.— The Eg\ttian Cobra or Asp 

{Naja Haje\. El Haj6 or Haj6 Nascher of the 
modem Arabs. 

This formidable snake was well known to the 
ancients, and Cuvier observes that "its habit of 
elevating itself when approached led the ancient 
Egyptians to believe that it was the guardian of the 
plains which it inhabited, and they adopted it as 
the protecting deity of the world; it is this snake 
whicti they sculptured on all the portals of their 
temples, on two sides of a globe." .This species is 
incontestibly the asp or aspic of Egypt, or of Cleo- 
patra, who chose it as the instrument of herdeath.i— 
"the worm of Nilus there that kills and pains not," 
in order to defeat the intentions of CiBsar. 

Among the Egyptians this snake was one of the 
marks of regal dignity, and is seen on the forepart 
of the tiara of almost all the Egyptian statues of 
deities and kings. 

Pliny gives the following account of this species, 
" The neck of the asp," he says, " is capable oi 
distention, and the only remedy against its bite is 
amputation of the wounded part. This animal, 
otherwise so much to be dreaded, has a sentiment or 
kind of affection truly wonderful ; it never lives 
alone, the male and female being constantly found 
together, and if one happens to be killed, the other 
seeks with the utmost fury to avenge its death. It 
knows and selects the destroyer from among crowds, 
and can only be deprived of its revenge by the most 
speedy flight, or the intervention of some rapid 
river." He adds that the lateral position of its eyes 
prevents it from seeinsr straight before it, and that 
consequently it is often trodden under foot before it 
is aware of its danger. This latter circumstance by 
no means proves its incapacity for seeing before it ; 
in fact its sight is as quiclc as its actions are prompt 
and rapid. Old walls, ruins amidst woods, and 
similar places are its usual haunts. 

It would appear, from Dr. A. Smith, that this 
species is a native of Southern Africa, as well as 
Egypt, Libya, &c. In his African Zoology he 
figures three varieties of the Haje, as well as the 
snake in its young state, with the synonyms Echidna 
flava, Merrem; Naja nigra. Smith; Geel Copell, 
Bruin Copell, and Spuugh-Slang of the Dutch Cape 
Colonists. Fig. 2295 represents the Haje in its 
young state, and 2296 the variety called Spuugh- 
Slang. 

He describes the majority of the South Afiican 
specimens as either entirely yellow or purplish 
brown, though a considerable number occur in 
which both these colours exist in the same indi- 
vidual : the depth of the colour varies considerably 
in different specimens,particularly in the yellow ones, 
in which every shade between straw yellow and clear 
purplish brown may be observed. The general colour 
of the young is pale straw yellow, with two brownish 
red collars on the throat ; the extremities of each of 
which are visible upon the neck above, and the ex- 
tremities of the lower collar are generally connected 
by a narrow bar of the same colour across the hood ; 
the eyes are light chestnut brown. Dr. A. Smith 
further remarks, that if this reptile be specifically 
distinct, he had not been able, after a close com- 
parison, to discover the distinctive characteristics ; 
and that the differences of colour among those col- 
lected in Egypt are quite as great as among the 
South African specimens. 

With respect to the variety called spuugh-slang 
(spitting snake), which is of a livid blackish brown, 
and which is more rare than the others, he observes 
that it has acquired its name from its supposed 
power of ejecting its poison to a distance. All the 
Cobra de Capellos, he remarks, distil poison from the 
points of their fangs when they are much irritated, 
and are able to eject a portion of it beyond the 
mouth by a forcible expiration, but he is not disposed 
to admit that any greater power is possessed by the 
spuugh-slang. 'The contrary, however, is asserted 
both by the colonists and natives : — " Both of these 
affirm that the snake in question is able to cast its 
poison to a distance of several feet, especially if the 
wind be blowing so as to favour its object ; and that 
it often projects it into the eyes of unwelcome 
intruders, and thereby occasions a degree of inflam- 
mation which not uncommonly terminates in loss of 
sight. In the Cape Colony the varieties of the 
Cobra de Capello are all regarded as highly dan- 
gerous, and many severe if not fatal consequences 
arc the results of their bite. They are all savage and 
bold, and when assailed they generally resist rather 
than fly, and they not unfrequently act upon the 
offensive. They climb trees with great facility, and 
often fake to the water out of choice. In the liquid 
element their progress is rather slow, and during 
their residence in it the head is ahvays kept raised 
above the surface. Whenever they are excited or 
irritated, they, like the common species of In Ua, 
inflate the loose skin of the neck, and exten.i it 



Najas.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



119 



laterally so as to exhibit an appearance as if tlie 
neck was edged on each side with a thin semicircular 
appendage. They feed upon small quadrupeds, 
birds, and eggs, and in search of the latter they 
ascend trees to rob nests." 

We have already alluded to a large hooded ser- 
pent, the Hamadryas (Hamadryas ophiophagus), a 
native of India, described by Dr. Cantor (' Zool. 
Proceeds.' 1838, p. 73 et sq.). This snake, having a 
few ma.Killary teeth behind the poison glands, ap- 
pears to form a link between the genera Naja and 
Bungarus, the latter of which it resembles in its 
dentition. Its Hindostanee name is Sunkr Choar. 
" According to the natives," says Dr. Cantor, " the 
Hamadryas feeds chiefly upon other serpents ; in 
one I dissected I found remains of a good-sized 
Monitor (varanus) ; which fact may account for its 
arboreal habits, as I have in Bengal, along the 
banks of the rivers, observed numbers of these 
large lizards among the branches of trees watching 
for birds. 

" The potfer of abstaining from food, generally 
speaking so characteristic of the serpents, is but 
in comparatively small degree possessed by this 
species ; the most protracted starvation amounts to 
a period of about one month, while the Vipera 
elegans, the Naja tripudians, and the Bungarus 
annularis, have, without inconvenience, been con- 
fined in cages without any food for more than ten 
months. Two specimens of the Hamadryas in my 
possession were regularly fed by giving them a 
serpent, no matter whether venomous or not, every 
fortnight. As soon as this food is brought near, the 
serpent begins to hiss loudly, and, expanding the 
hood, rises two or three feet, and retaining this atti- 
tude as if to take a sure aim, watching the move- 
ments of the prey, darts upon it in the same manner 
as the Naja tripudians does. When the victim is 
killed by poison, and by degrees swallowed, the act 
is followed by a lethargic state, lasting for about 
twelve hours. 

" The Hamadrjas, like the greater number of 
Indian serpents, evinces a great partiality to water ; 
with the exception of the tree-serpents (Leptophina, 
Bell), they all not only drink, but also moisten the 
tongue, which, as this organ is not situated imme- 
diately in the cavity of the mouth, become in the 
serpents two different acts. Specimens of this ser- 
pent in my possession changed the skin every third 
or fourth month, a process which takes place in all 
the Indian serpents several times during the year. 
The Hamadryas is very fierce, and is always ready 
not only to attack, but to pursue when opposed ; 
while the Cophias, the Vipera, the Naja, and the 
Bungarus, merely defend themselves, which done, 
they always retreat, provided no further provocation 
is offered. The natives of India assert, that indi- 
viduals are found upwards of twelve feet in length, 
a statement probably not exaggerated, as 1 have 
myself seen specimens from eight to ten feet in 
length, and from six to eight inches in circumference. 
I have often heard it asserted that ' Cobras ' (which 
name is naturally enough given to every hooded 
serpent) have been met with of an enormous size, 
but I strongly doubt their belonging to the genus 
Naja : among a considerable number which have 
come under my observation, I never saw any ex- 
ceeding five to six feet in length, while the common 
size is about four feet. Some time before I dis- 
covered the Hamadryas, I was favoured by J. W. 
Grant, Esq., of the Hon. Company's Civil Service, 
with an interesting description of a gigantic hooded 
serpent he had observed in the upper provinces, 
and which, he remarked, was not a Naja. By in- 
spection this gentleman denied the Hamadryas to 
be identical with the above-mentioned. 

" The natives describe another hooded serpent, 
which is said to attain a much larger size than the 
Hamadryas, and which, to conclude from the ver- 
nacular name, ' Mony Choar,' is perhaps another 
nearly allied species. 

" The fresh poison of the Hamadryas is a pellucid, 
tasteless fluid, in consistence like a thin solution 
of gum arable in water; it reddens slightly litmus- 
paper, which is also the case with the fresh poison 
of the Cophias viridis, Vipera elegans, Naja tri- 
pudians, Bungarus annularis, and Bung, cceruleus : 
when kept for some time, it acts much stronger upon 
litmus, but after being kept it loses considerably, if 
not entirely, its deleterious effects. 

" From a series of experiments upon living ani- 
mals, the effects of this poison come nearest to those 
produced by that of the Naja tripudians, although 
It appears to act less quickly. The shortest period 
within which this poison proved fatal to a fowl was 
fourteen minutes ; whilst a dog expired in two hours 
eighteen minutes alter being bitten. It should 
however be observed, that the experiments were 
made during the cold season of the year." 

From our digression on the Hamadiyas, we turn 
to a singular circumstance connected with the 
historj- both of the North African and Indian 
Cobras, and which has much engaged the attention 



of European travellers ; we allude to their fascina- 
tion by music, and the influence exerted upon them 
by a race or caste of professed snake-charmers, who 
appear from time immemorial in the East to have 
exercised their art upon them, and exhibited various 
performances. 

We find allusions to serpent-charming in the 
Scriptures. Jeremiah writes: "For behold, I will 
send serpents, cockatrices among you, which will 
not be charmed," ch. viii. 17. Again in the Psalms : 
"Their poison is like the poison of a serpent; they 
are like the deaf adder that stoppeth her ear; which 
will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming 
never so wisely." Ps. Iviii. 4, 5. 

The charming or incantation of serpents is so 
strange, that many have utterly denied the fact, 
while others have asserted it to be a deception. 
Our own conviction is that serpents are extremely 
susceptible of impressions from musical notes, or 
modulations, under the influence of which they 
wreathe their bodies, from feelings of pleasure, while 
to these graceful contortions and undulating move- 
ments, the charmer, who plays on a pipe, or some 
simple instrument, skilfully adapts the time. That 
snakes are influenced by musical sounds we might 
quote various authorities to prove ; it was in fact 
known to the ancients. "Cerberus Orpheo lenivit si- 
bila cantu." Pliny and Seneca both affirm that ser- 
pents can be allured from their retreats by music ; 
and among the moderns, who contend for the same, 
maybenientionedChardin,Greaves, Dr. Shaw, Bruce, 
Sir W. Jones, Chateaubriand, &c. The last indeed, 
in his ' Beauties of Christianity,' gives an interesting 
account of the eftects upon a rattlesnake of modula- 
tions played on the flute by a Canadian, who at last, 
like Orpheus, led the fascinated reptile out of the 
camp, following him as he moved onwards ; to the 
astonishment both of the Europeans and natives, 
who unanimously agreed that the creature's life 
should be spared ; though in evident anger it had 
intruded into their encampment. "A learned 
native of this country [India]," says Sir W. Jones, 
"told me that he had frequently seen the most 
venomous and malignant snakes leave their holes, 
upon hearing notes from a flute, which, as he sup- 
posed, gave them peculiar delight :" ' Asiat. Res.' 
vol. iii. p. 315. Mr. Gogerly, a missionary, con- 
firms this statement. He observes that some 
persons who were incredulous on the subject, alter 
taking the most careful precautions against any 
trick or artifice being played, sent a charmer 
into the garden to prove his powers : " The man 
began to play upon his pipe, and proceeding from 
one part of the garden to another, for some 
minutes slopped at a part of the wall much injured 
by age, and intimated that a serpent was within. 
He then played quicker, and his notes were louder, 
when almost immediately a large Cobra de Capello 
put forth its hooded head, and the man ran fear- 
lessly to the spot, seized it by the throat and drew 
it forth. He then showed the poison fangs, and 
beat them out ; afterwards it was taken to the room 
where his baskets were left, and deposited amongst 
the rest." Abundance of similar instances are on 
record ; and we may here add that M. Schomberg, 
speaking of a pretty little lizard in the West Indies 
(Anolius bullaris), states, that "they are often 
caught by boys, who take advantage of their fond- 
ness for musical sounds, arresting their attention, 
and then throwing a little noose over their head," 
as they perch in a listening attitude on the branches 
of trees : ' Linn. Trans.' vol. xvii. p. 060. W^e have 
then here the key to the v.'hole mystery. The ex- 
hibition of serpents is itself attended with deception, 
for the poison fangs are always carefully extracted ; 
and hence are the wounds which the charmers sub- 
ject themselves to, of comparatively little conse- 
quence. It should be observed, however, that long 
practice has given these men an intimate knowledge 
of the habits of these reptiles ; hence it need not 
surprise us that they easily discover where they lurk, 
a point which has been often put to the rigid test. 
Mr. Lane imagines that it is by the smell that they 
discover the presence of these reptiles ; but we are 
inclined to suppose that it is by the ear. As the 
man plays his pipe he regards attentively the most 
likely spots, and intently hstens ; his practised ear 
catches the slightest rustle of the serpent, as excited 
it turns or moves in its hole, its subdued hiss, or its 
quickened breathing ; but the spectators, engaged 
in attending to the man, hear and see nothing but 
him, and are too much interested to endeavour to 
find the snake by the exercise of their own faculties. 
No doubt these men, in order to magnify them- 
selves, arrogate more power than they are really 
entitled to, and throw an air of professional mystery 
over their operations, and hence many believe that 
all is assumed, and the whole a trick. Mr. Johnson, 
in his ' Indian Field-Sports,' leans to this opinion; 
he says, "The professed snake-catchers in India are 
a low caste of Hindoos, wonderfully clever in catch- 
ing snakes, and in practicing the art of legerdemain : 
they pretend to draw them firom their holes by a 



song, and by an instrument somewhat like the Irish 
bagpipe, on which they play a plaintive tune. The 
truth is, all this is done to deceive. If ever a snake 
comes out of a hole at the sound of their music, you 
may be certain that it is a tame one, trained to it, 
deprived of its venomous teeth, and put there for 
the purpose ; and this you may prove, as I have 
often done, by killing the snake and examining it, 
by which you will exasperate the man exceedingly." 
No doubt they often act thus ; but this does not 
prove that they cannot draw wild snakes from their 
retreats ; indeed the contrary is notorious ; Mr. 
Johnson is perhaps not aware of the effects of mu- 
sical sounds, not only upon snakes, but upon other 
animals : — 

" Kudo Ilcislfar's aeaU tlirougli surpes dark 
Will long pursue the minalrel's Ijark." 

But besides seals, rats and mice are attracted by 
music, as we can testify, and deer and sheep. Music 
affects also dogs and cats, sometimes, as it would 
seem, distressingly ; and if our memory serve us, we 
have somewhere read a detailed account of the 
influence of certain notes or modulations upon the 
ferocious animals of the menagerie. The subject 
requires a series of detailed observations, when per- 
haps some singular facts would be elicited. Of the 
modern snake-charmers, the Psylli were the ancient 
prototypes. They were a people of Cyrenaica, a 
country in Africa abounding in reptiles ; supposed 
to be endowed with the natural power of charming 
serpents, from whose bite they were exempt : Pliny 
supposed that some odour of their persons, which 
the serpents abhorred, protected them, and Lucan 
says the same. 

The latter, in his poem of ' Pharsalia,' describes 
the method they adopted to drive away these reptiles 
from the environs of the Roman camp, marching 
around it, chanting mystic songs; and, what was 
more eff'ectual, keeping up fires of diflerent kinds 
of wood around the encampment during the whole 
of the night. If a soldier happened to be bitten, 
they raised " the magic lay," and rubbed the parts 
around with saliva, to prevent, as they said, the 
poison from spreading, while they used their arts to 
extract it ; and when suspicious symptoms arose, 
they sucked the venom trom the wound. We have 
already alluded to the opinions of Celsus respecting 
the Psylli. 

Figs. 2207, 2298, and 2299 represent the modem 
Snake-charmers of Egypt and India exercising their 
art, and allowing the snakes to entwine around 
them. They carry about with them these reptiles 
in covered baskets, and, taking out eight or ten, cast 
them on the ground. The animals immediately 
begin to make oft' in different directions. " The 
snake-charmer," says Mr. Gogerly, " applies his pipe 
to his mouth, and sends forth a few of his peculiar 
notes, and all the serpents stop as though enchanted ; 
they then turn towards the musician, and, approach- 
ing him within two feet, raise their heads I'roni the 
ground, and bending backwards and forwards, keep 
time with the tune. When he ceases playing they 
drop their heads and remain quiet on the ground." 
He adds that there is another and inferior class of 
serpent-charmers, who are Bengalese, of the lowest 
caste. They do not use the pipe, but merely beat 
with their fingers a small drum held in one hand. 
Sometimes these men tease and irritate the snakes 
until they become infuriated and fasten on their 
naked arms, which they occasionally suffer to be 
bitten till covered with blood. Other serpent- 
charmers, again, merely allow large serpents to 
twine about their bodies, as if to show their perfect 
subjection, and the power with which they ai'e 
gifted — 

" To dally with the crested worm, 
To stroke his azure neck, or to receive 
The lambent homage of liis arrowy tongue." 

Others, again, while in the serpent's coils, will allow 
themselves to be dreadfully bitten, till, from re- 
peated wounds, and the torture they endure, they 
become swollen and in a really dangerous condition, 
notwithstanding the poison fangs have been re- 
moved. Such exhibitions are revolting, and, be- 
sides, by no means destitute of danger, as is proved 
by the statement of Mr. Johnson, who informs us 
that on one occasion, when a man was exhibiting 
a tame dancing cobra before a large party, a boy, 
the son of the exhibitor, and about sixteen years of 
age, teased the animal to make it bite him ; this, 
indeed, it did, and to some purpose, for in an hour 
afterwards he died of the bite. The father of the 
boy was astonished, and protested his death could 
not be the result of the bite — that the snake had no 
venomous teeth — and that he and the boy had often 
been bitten by it before without any bad effects. 
On examining the snake it was found that the 
former fangs were replaced by new ones, then not 
far out of the jaw, but sufiiciently so to produce the 
fatal effects that ensued. The old man said he had 
never heard of such a circumstance before. We 
should, however, be inclined to suspect that such 




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S293.— EgyplUn Cobi». 



120 



MM — Egyptian C«bn. 





23C2.— Tail of Homed Acanihophis. 





2304.— Kattlcsnake. 



2305.— Tail of Kaltlesnako. 



23i:g.— KattlcsDake and OiiOsHum 





2300.— Qoad and Tail of Brawn't Acantbopbis. 



2298.— Serpcnl-Channers. 



:.w!.,:i;,:,i!i,'.;(r.{i^.!fli|Pl 




So. 66. 



2303. — Le>WD'(.Acanthof)y(. 



-Vol. II. 





2301.— Horned Acanthophis 



3399.— S«rpent-Channers. 
[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



121 



122 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[SXAKES. 



accidents were not uncommon, though perhaps not 
generally known. 

Serpents do not always "obey the voice of the 
chamier." Roberts mentions the instance of a man 
who came to a gentleman's house to exhibit tame 
snakes ; and, on being told that a cobra was in a 
cage in the house, was asked if he could charm it : 
on hU replying in the affirmative the serpent was 
released from the cage, and, no doubt, in a state of 
high irritation. The man becan his incantrftions 
and repeated his charms, but the snake darted at 
him, fastened upon his arm, and before night he was 
a corpse. 

Among the snakes to be dreaded for their bold- 
ness and venom, may be noticed the lance-headed 
vijjer, of the islands of Martinico, St. Lucia, and we 
believe also of the Brazilian continent. It is the 
Vipire fer-de-lance of the French (Trigonocephalus 
lanceolatus, Oppel.). 

This species attains to six, seven, and even, as it is 
said, eighi or nine feet in length ; and is remarkable 
for its activity. When about to make an attack, it 
throws itself into spiral coils, and then launches 
itself with the velocity of an arrow on its enemy. 
It greatly abounds in the sugar-cane plantations, 
and, as the negroes are much exposed to its bite, 
many perish from time to lime from the effects 
of its poison. It is not, however, confined to sugar- 
cane plantations; it haunts woods, marshes, the 
luxuriant borders of rivers, and occurs even on the 
sterile mountains. M. Moreau de Jonn^s and his com- 
panions, on their accent to the crater at the pinnacle 
of a mountain, more than five thousand feet high, 
which overhangs the town of St. Pierre, in Marti- 
nico, encountered one of these snakes at the sum- 
mit, from which, as they were completely exhausted 
by their exertions, they were in great danger. In- 
deed, it was only eight days previously to their 
ascent that a fisherman, while shooting his canoe 
over the volcanic pebbles of the shore at the l)ase 
of that very mountain, had been attacked by one 
of these snakes; it rushed at him from its conceal- 
ment among loose basaltic masses, and inflicted a 
wound which, notwithstanding all endeavours to 
save his life, proved fatal. 

In the woods these reptiles mount to the tops of 
the highest trees, in quest of birds and their young, 
and often lie coiled in the snug nests of the previous 
tenants, which latter they have devoured. They 
lurk also in the holes of trees, and under the de- 
composing masses of herbage in close thickets, or 
among the parasitic plants which soon overgrow 
the mouldering logs of timber in the forest. Should 
a ijerson incautiously approach the lair of one of 
these snakes, it will dart ibrth, and pursue the fugi- 
tive by a series of rapid leaps ; and even when in 
the trees, it has been known to spring at a passer- 
by. Tenements in the country, and the embowered 
cottages of the negroes, are often invaded by this 
pest, and poultry-yards and pigeon-houses are sub- 
ject to its visitations. It is not unfrequently brought 
into the towns among green fodder and vegetable 
productions, and numbers are constantly found to 
enter within the outworks of Fort Bourbon in Mar- 
tinico, and Fort Luzerne in St. Lucia, during their 
nightly excursions, where they are despatched as 
quickly as possible. Lizards, birds, and rats, but 
especially the latter, constitute the food of this ser- 
pent ; after swallowing its prey, it is said to exhale 
a disgusting odour, yet the negroes, who are not 
very fastidious, eat its flesh, which is not un- 
pleasant. 

Nearly related to this snake is the formidable 
Bushmaster (Lachesis rhombeata) of Guiana, Bra- 
zil, &c. It is exceedingly venomous, and attains 
to the length of eight or nine feet. There are 
double scuta beneath the tail, which terminates in 
a short horny point ; when surprised or irritated 
this reptile vibrates its tail, and produces a rustling 
noise by striking it against the dry grass or the 
brushwood; but not, as in the rattlesnake, by means 
of a special piece of oscillating mechanism. From 
this habit, however, Linnaeus associated it with the 
rattlesnakes, under the name of Crotalus mutus. It 
is an intermediate form between those snakes and 
the viperine family. 

We may now proceed to a genus, in which, 
mostly at least, the tail is terminated by a spiniform 
scale, but the plates beneath the tail, excepting a 
few of the last, are single. We allude to the geiius 
Acanthophis, which appears to be restricted to 
Australia. 

The following extracts from Mr. G. Bennett's 
interesting work, entitled ' Wanderings in New 
South Wales,' may not be unacceptable. •' Snakes," 
he says, " are numerous in various parts of the co- 
lony. Those known among the colonists as the 
Black and Brown Snakes are Ibund about the banks 
of rivers or in swampy situations The natives, who, 
however, are not the best authorities (we query 
this), say that the bite is not deadly, but causes the 
person bitten to feel .sick and sleepy for a short 
time, which passes off without being followed by 



any ill effects, even if no remedy be applied." 
These snakes measure about four feet in length, 
and readily take to the water. They feed upon 
frogs, lizards, &c. "There is,"' he continues, "an- 
other dangerous snake called Yellow Snake by the 
colonists, and .Taruk by the Yas natives. It attains 
to a very large size, and has the reputation of being 
very venomous ; the bite (unless the piece be im- 
mediately cut out) producing almost immediate 
death. 

" The most deadly snake in appearance, and I 
believe also in effect, is one of hideous aspect, called 
by the colonists Death Adder, and by the Yas na- 
tives Tammen, from havmg a small curved process 
at the end of the tail, bearing some resemblance 
to a sting : and the reptile is considered by popular 
rumour (but erroneously) to inflict a deadly sting 
, with it. 

I '■ This hideous reptile (evidently an acanthophis) 

I is thick in proportion to its length. The eye is 

' vivid yellow with a black longitudinal pupil ; the 

! colourof the body is difficult to be described ; being 

a complication of dull tints, with narrow blackish 

bands, shaded off into the hues which prevail upon 

the back ; the under parts are slightly tinged with 

red. The head is broad, thick, and flattened. The 

specimen I examined measured two feet two inches 

in length, and iive inches in circumference. A 

dog that was bitten by one died in less than an 

hour." 

The snakes of this genus Acanthophis are dull 
and inanimated ; they feed upon insects, lizards, and 
I small mammalia. 

2300. — Brow.n's Acanthophis 

(Acanthophis Brownii). Our pictorial specimens 
of the Head and Tail of this hideous reptile suffice 
to convey a clear idea of the generic characters. 
According to Mr. P. Cunningham, this is the most 
venomous snake of New South Wales, and is, we 
suspect, identical with the Death Adder, described 
by Mr. G. Bennett. 

Mr. Cunningham relates a remarkable fact, 
proving both the tenacity of life which these snakes 
possess, and the virulence of the poison. Two in- 
dividuals, a male and female, were discovered by 
the dogs of a sportsman ; the male was killed, but 
the female escaped into the hole ; upwards of ten 
minutes afterwards, one of the dogs, in lumting about 
where the snake had been killed, was bitten in the 
foot by the head which had been cut otf, and shortly 
after died in the most dreadful convulsions. The 
male is dark brown, the female of a light orange 
colour. 

2301. — The Horned Acanthophis 

{Acanthophis ceroitimis). This species, which was 
first described by Menem, is named Cerastinus 
from the similarity which, at first sight, it bears to 
the Cerastes, in its short thick body, large flat 
head, and eyes surrounded by prominent scales. 
The pointed spur with which the tail terminates is 
sharp, compressed, and slightly bent upwards. (Fig. 
2302.) 

2303. — Lesson's Acanthophis 

(Acanthophis Tortor). This species is described 
by Lesson in the ' Zoologie de la Coquille,' and is 
considered by him as identical with the A. Brownii 
of Dr. Leach. This, however, is evidently not the 
case, for in the first place the tail of Lesson's 
species is not tipped with a spine, and in the second 
place its colouring is perfectly different. It is 
elegantly tinted ; a black velvety blue is spread 
over the upper part of the body ; rose-colour 
deepened to red runs along each side from the jaws 
to the base of the tail. Pale yellow tinges the un- 
der surface of the body, but a brown circle occupies 
the centre of each abdominal plate ; the head and 
tail are uniformly blue-black. Length about three 
feet. Lesson describes two poison fangs on each 
side as small and sharp. Letter a represents the 
Head, which, it will be perceived, is very different 
from that of A. Brownii. 

2304. — ^The Rattlesnake 

(Crotalus durissus). Crotalus horridus, Cuv. 

Several species of Rattlesnake are known to 
naturalists, as the Boiquira or Diamond Rattle- 
snake of Mexico, Guiana, and Brazil (Crotalus 
horridus) ; the Common or Banded Rattlesnake 
of the United States (Crotalus durissus) ; and 

: the Small Rattlesnake (Caudisona miliaris, Fitzin.). 

' We may here observe that the terms horridus and 
durissus have been very loosely applied to the two 
former species by naturalists. Cuvier assigns the 

! term horridus to the species found in the United 
Slates, and durissus to that of Guiana. In his 
' North American Reptiles,' Dr. Harlan reverses the 

i titles, and we adopt his application of them. 

1 The rattlesnakes are all natives of America; the 
head is covered with scales, similar to those of the 

: upper surface, excepting in the genus Caudisona, 



where it is protected by plates; there is a small de 
pression behind each nostril ; the tail is furnished 
with an appendage commonly termed its rattle ; it 
consists of a number of thin horny cells, of a pyra- 
midal figure, with a protuberant marginal ring; 
they are fitted into one another as far as this ring; 
that is, the pyramidal portion of one is received 
into the hollow of that succeeding, its apex reach- 
ing as far as the ring of the third, and so on, — hence, 
when all together, only the protuberant margin of 
each is seen. The articulation of these distinct 
portions being very loose, they rustle against each 
other when smartly vibrated, and produce a distinct 
whirring noise that may be heard at some distance. 
The structure of the rattle is well expressed at Fig. 
230D ; a shows a rattle of twenty-four joints ; i, the 
section of a rattle, showing the form of the distinct 
portions, and the mode in which they are fitted into 
each other. The number of the joints composing 
the rattle increases, to a certain period at least, with 
each moult of slough, and the basal bell is the last 
formed. When irritated or alarmed, the rattlesnake 
vibrates this appendage, and gives timely warning, 
for it is slow to strike, and never voluntarily attacks 
man. unless trodden upon or molested. It is, in- 
deed, mostly glad to escape, retiring with tail erect 
and rapidly vibrating. These reptiles, when irri- 
tated, exhale a disgusting odour ; it is said, however, 
that the peccary will destroy and devour them; 
though not, as we should suppose, without often 
experiencing the effects of their venomous fangs. 
Horses and dogs, however, avoid them. 

" I have often," says M. Bosc, " amused myself 
by trying to force my horse and dog to approach 
one of these animals, but they would sooner have 
allowed themselves to be knocked down on the spot 
than come near them." It would seem from Kalm 
that horses and oxen perish from the bite of a 
rattlesnake sooner than dogs or men, yet dogs 
seldom survive. Captain Hall exposed some of 
these animals to the bite of a rattlesnake measuring 
four feet in length ; the first struck with its deadly 
fangs expired in fifteen minutes, the second lingered 
in great agony for two hours before death ended its 
sufferings, and the third only began to feel the effects 
of the poison after an interval of three houi-s : four 
days afterwards the same snake bit a dog which 
died in thirty seconds, and another dog which died 
in four minutes. 

Well is it then that such terrible reptiles are slow 
in their movements, indolent in their habits, and 
ready to give warning by their rattle of their pre- 
sence ! They are fond of lying coiled up in sunny 
spots, with the rattle elevated in the centre, and 
ready to be vibrated, when the animal sees an in- 
truder, without moving any other part of the body. 
When exasperated, the rattlesnake continuously 
vibrates the tail ; the head is flattened, the throat 
and cheeks are distended, the jaws open, the venom- 
fangs are displayed, the tongue quivers, and the 
boily alternately swells and sinks with rage, like a 
pair of bellows ; should its enemy now approach, 
the blow will be instantaneously struck : if, how- 
ever, he retire, the reptile will unfold its coils, and 
creep away into the brushwood, as if unwilling to 
continue the strife. 

Occasionally these snakes attain to very great 
dimensions. Catesby says, "The largest I ever saw 
was one about eight feet in length, weighing be- 
tween eight and nine pounds. This monster was 
gliding into the house of Colonel Blake of Carolina, 
and had certainly taken his abode there undisco- 
vered, had not the domestic animals alarmed the 
family with their repeated outcries; the hogs, dogs, 
and poultry united in their hatred to him, showing 
the greatest consternation, by erecting their bristles 
and feathers; and, expressing their wrath and indig- 
nation, surrounded him, but carefully kept their 
distance, while he, regardless of their threats, glided 
slowly along." The same writer, speaking of the 
herbs used as antidotes to the bite, by the Indians, 
adds, " Having, by travelling much with Indians, had 
frequent opportunities of seeing the direful effects 
of the bite of those snakes, it always seemed and 
was apparent to me that the good effects usually 
attributed to these their remedies are owing more 
to the force of nature or the bite of a small snake 
in a muscular part. The person thus bit I have 
known to survive for many hours without any as- 
sistance, but where a rattlesnake with full force 
penetrates with his deadly fangs, and pricks a vein or 
artery, inevitable death ensues, and that, as I have 
often seen, in less than two minutes. The Indians 
know their destiny the minute they are bit, and 
when they perceive it mortal apply no remedy, con- 
cluding all efforts are vain ; but if the bite happen 
in a fleshy part, they immediately cut it out to stop 
the current of the poison. I could heartily wisn 
that oil of olives applied to the wound might have 
as good success against the venom of these snakes 
as it hath been found in England to have had against 
the poison of the adder." 

It is in the hottest part of the year only, accord- 



SSA-SXAKES.J 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



123 



mg to Mr. Pence of Philadelphia, that the poison 
of this reptile is the most dangerous. " Its bite," 
he savs. " from the moment it emerges from its 
retreat till August, does not necessarily produce fatal 
effects. It has been remarked, and the observation 
has not escaped the Indians, that from the month of 
August to the time when about to retire to its winter 
quarters, the period in which it takes the most food, 
it becomes terrible, and its bite is mortal." 

" We know that serpents in general retire on the 
approach of winter, according to the nature of the 
ground, and the temperature of the places they 
tenant, either under large stones, or info holes which 
other animals have burrowed. The Boigeura gives 
preference to places in the vicinity of water. We 
have dug up many of their holes on the borders of 
the river Maurice. They were all tortuous, and led 
to a sort of chamber distant from the entrance six 
or cisrht feet, and there we have found them in balls, 
and twined together. Our guide led us, on one oc- 
casion, into a marshy place, covered with a prodigious 
quantity of the sphagnum pahbtre, a kind of moss, 
of which the stems are from six to twelve inches 
high. Having removed some of this moss, of which 
the top was frozen (the frost being so severe that it 
penetrated the naked ground to the depth of twelve 
or fourteen inches), we perceived many rattlesnakes 
slowly creeping among the roots of the trees, im- 
mediately beneath the moss, and on an oozy ground 
over which flowed running water not affected by the 
frost. Here I would make a passing remaik, that 
this fact may be turned to account by persons em- 
ployed in agriculture or gardening : this moss might 
he employed for the preservation of delicate plants 
liable to be killed by the severity of winter." 

Numerous experiments prove that the rattle- 
snake eats indifferently all kinds of dead birds he 
meets with, and that he employs no supernatural 
means to seize his victims. He does not, however, 
eat frogs, to which the black snake (Coluber Con- 
strictor) is so partial 

We may add that the rattlesnake never climbs 
trees, but waits on the ground for its prey, on which 
It darts when within the proper distance. 

Mr. Pence says that the rattlesnake employs no 
supernatural means to seize his victims — and he 
speaks sensibly. Who, however, lias not heard of 
the fascinating powers of this snake ? The process 
is thus detailed by Catesby : — " The charming, as it 
is commonly called, or attractive power which this 
snake is said to have of drawing to it animals, and 
devouring them, is generally believed in America: 
as for my own part, I never saw the action, but a 
great many from whom I have had it related all 
agree in the manner of the process ; which is, 
that the animals, particularly birds and squirrels 
(which principally are their prey), no sooner spy the 
snake tlian they skip from spray to spray, hovering 
and approaching gradually nearer their enemy, re- 
gardless of any other danger, but with distracted ges- 
tures and outcriesdescend from the top of the lolliest 
trees to the mouth ofthe snake, who openeth his jaws, 
takes them in, and in an instant swallows them." 

In all this there is nothing beyond what arises 
from the desire of the animals to drive awajr a 
savage foe, against which they have an instinctive 
hatred, from the precincts of their nests, and in their 
eagerness and anxiety often advance so close as to 
bring themselves within the reptile's power. In 
other instances they are startled by the dreaded 
snake's sudden appearance, and become bewildered 
or paralyzed with terror. Fig. 2306 shows a small 
species of Opossum suddenly surprised by the unex- 
pected appearance of a Rattlesnake. 

After all it is very doubtful whether living birds 
are the common prey of the rattlesnake. Some 
experiments by Mr. Pence on a rattlesnake, an<l also 
on a black snake (not venomous), seem to prove 
this. A living bird (an oriole) was introduced into 
the cage of the rattlesnake, and remained there for 
two days without betraying the least fear, or ex- 
periencing the slightest molestation from the reptile, 
which, however, devoured a dead bird, wliile the 
oriole hopped about untouched. A cardinal pros- 
beak was then introduced, and this, so far from 
avoiding the snake, pecked at ease about the cage, 
picked up the seeds, and even hopped on the snake's 
back, hut retreated on hearing the sound of the 
rattle. Frogs, both living and dead, were presented, 
but it would not touch them. The black snake, on 
the contrary, instantly seized them. At last a 
common rat was put into the rattlesnake's cage. 
Scarcely was it fairly in when the reptile appeared 
animated ; the rat fled in alarm to the opposite side 
of the cage, to escape the snake, which now gave 
chace, following the rat very deliberately. Strenuous 
were the efforts of the terrified victim to avoid its 
pursuer, but in vain ; the snake, seizing a favour- 
able moment, struck its prey and then remained 
motionless; the rat ran about for a little time as if 
bewildered, and at the end of a minute became 
swollen and died in convulsions; it was then swal- 
lowed. 

Vol. II. 



We may now turn our attention to the venomous 
snakes, in which there are maxillary teeth behind 
the poison-fangs. 

2307. — The Banded Bung.\rus 

(Sunffarus fasciatus). In the eenus Bungarus of 
Daudin (Pseudoboa, Oppel.), the head is short, 
covere<l with large plates, and not remarkable for 
any great breadth or swelling of the occiput, as in 
most venomous snakes ; the scales down the ridge 
"of the back, as in dipsas, are larger than the lateral 
scales; the subcaudal plates are simple; there is no 
dilatable hood as in the allied genus Hamadryas. 

The snakes of the present group are natives of 
India, where they are called rock serpents, accord- 
ing to Cuvier, who also informs us that the name 
which the banded species bears in Bengal is 
Bungarum-Pamma, whence the barbarous term 
Bungarus, used by Daudin, and now generally 
adopted. 

The banded bungarus is a formidable reptile, at- 
taining to the length of eight feet. The specimens 
we have examined (preserved in spirit) were of a 
yellowish white, with annular bands of black. 
There are several other species, as B. coeruleus, B. 
lividus, &c. 

Family HYDRIDE (MARINE SNAKES). 

These singular animals are truly aquatic in their 
habits, and by the compression of their form, and 
especially of their tail, admirably adapted for swim- 
ming, by means of a series of eel-like movements. 
Indeed, excepting that they are destitute of fins, 
and are covered with scales, they closely resemble 
eels in their general appearance. 

We have yet tolearn many points respecling these 
snakes, which are all confined to the warmer lati- 
tudes, and are often seen collected in shoals in the 
Indian seas, giving chace to fishes and other prey. 
Occasionally they are carried out by stor.ms to extra- 
tropical latitudes, and drifted upon distant coasts, 
an instance of which occurred on the shores of New 
Zealand, as we have previously mentioned (Proceeds. 
Zool. Soc. 1838, p. 4). 

It would seem that these snakes only occasionally 
visit the land, if indeed they ever leave the water; 
indeed we are not aware that any have ever been 
caught on shore ; and they can only live for a short 
period out of salt water. Russell, in his beautiful 
work on Indian serpents, states, that " It is remarked 
by the Rev. M. John that he never found a land, a 
river, or a tank snake with a flat tail ; such as are 
sometimes found in rivers have been brought in by 
the tide, and can only live a short while out of salt 
water. He further remarks it is difficult to procure 
sea-snakes, for, though often caught in nets, they 
are held in such dread by the tishermen, that hardly 
any inducement can procure them."' Though 
possessing maxillary teeth, these serpents are highly 
venomous ; nevertheless many naturalists have 
asserted the contrary, and even, in some parts, the 
natives of India have the same erroneous idea, so 
that the assertion ofthe Rev. M. John that they are 
dreaded by the fishermen must be taken with some 
limitation. The following extract from the Proceeds. 
Zool. Soc. 1838, p. 80, may not prove uninteresting. 
It is the summary of a paper on Marine Serpents 
by Dr. Cantor : — " This communication embodies the 
results of Dr. Cantor's observations upon the habits 
and general conformation of the Marine Ophidians, 
a group of Vertebrata to which but little attention 
has hitherto been given, from the circumstance of 
the danger attending their examination in the living 
state, and also from their geographical distribution 
being entirely confined to the tropical seas. The 
author being stationed, in the East India Company's 
service, on the Delta of the Ganges, had, during a 
considerable period, most favourable opportunities 
for studying the.se serpents, many of which were 
captured in the nets employed for fishing. His 
observations are principally directed to the ana- 
tomical characters which distinguish the marine 
from the terrestrial serpents, and to the modifications 
of structure by which the former are adapted to the 
element in which they exist. With respect to their 
physiology, the principal point of interest he esta- 
blishes is, the circumstance of all the species, with- 
out exception, being highly venomous, a fact which 
has been denied by Sclilegel, who states that the 
marine snakes are harmless; and the same erroneous 
idea is very current with the natives. Dr. Cantor 
in proof of the contrary refers to the recent death of 
an officer in Her Majesty's service, within an hour 
or two after the bite of a serpent which had been 
caught at sea, and also to numerous experiments of 
his own, in which fowls, fish, and other animals 
invariably died within a few minutes after the bite 
had been inflicted. Numerous sketches were ex- 
hibited to the meetingin illustration of Dr. Cantor's 
observations." 

Though marine snakes are not found naturally in- 
habiting rivers or lakes, yet they abound in salt-water 
creeks and ditches. The species are very numerous, 



about fifty species being known, of which most are 
in the magnificent collection of the British Museum. 
We have already alluded to the occurrence of these 
animals around the shores of the Samoa or Naviga- 
tors' Islands, where they are eaten, and not at Tahiti, 
as stated by Cuvier, for they are there unknown. 

Mr. Gray (Proceeds. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 135) 
observes that " The family of Hydridje (as far as 
known up to that date) consists of twenty-three 
genera, and forty-eight species, of which twenty are 
found in the Indian Ocean, and sixteen in the .salt- 
water ditches of India and the neighbouring islands, 
and six are found in similar situations in tropical 
America." 

2308. — The Bicolouked Sea-Snake 

{Pelamys hicolor). Hydrus bicolor, Schn. ; Anguis 
platurus, Linn. 

In this genus the head is covered with large plates, 
and the occiput has a swollen appearance by reason 
ofthe development of the pedicles ofthe lower jaw, 
which is very dilatable ; the scales of the body are 
small, equal, and disposed like the pieces forming a. 
pavement of hexagons. The colouring is black 
above, yellow below. It is probably this species 
which Mr. Williams observed at Savaii, Upolu, &c. : 
the snakes cast on New Zealand were the same : the 
tail is shaped very like that of an eel. 

2309.— The Banded Sea-Snake 

(Ckeisi/drvs fasciatus). Oular limpc of the Java- 
nese ; Acrochordus fasciatus, Shaw. 

The peculiar scaling of the head and body is ex- 
hibited with the pictorial specimen, from which it 
will be seen that the scales down the ridge of the 
back are hexagonal and larger than the small lateral 
scales. 

Cuvier says that this species inhabits the bottom 
of the rivers in Java, and is very venomous. We 
should rather suspect he meant the saline creeks and 
ditches of that island, for, as already observed, none 
of these serpents inhabit fresh water. It is alter- 
nately annulated with black and white. 

The peculiar forms of the Hydridae may be con- 
trasted with those of the terrestrial snakes, of 
which we give a few additional examples. — Fig. 
2310, a group, representing several of the most 
remarkable, is depicted. The boa, the cobra, the 
rattlesnake, the viper, and cerastes are conspicuous. 

Fig. 2311 is a spirited representation of the attack 
upon a sleeping lascar by a monstrous python, 
noticed in our account of that reptile ; the fatal 
conclusion was prevented by the opportune return 
of the party, who destroyed the snake, which was 
found to exceed sixty-two feet in length. The nar- 
rative was first publi.shed in the ' Oriental Annual,' 
and the engraving is copied from a painting by Mr. 
W. Daniell, now in the possession of the Baron de 
Noual de la Loyril. 

Fig. 2312 represents a group of snakes coiled 
together, aroused from their state of hybernation. 

Fig. 2313 is a second pictorial specimen of Her- 
peton tentacuiatUs. 



ORDER AMPHIBIA. 

Taken in its strict sense the term amphibia {Auipiffiot, 
utrimque vitam habens, having a double life) is 
applicable only to such animals as have the power 
of living indifferently both in the water, respiring by 
means of gills, and on the land, breathing by means 
of lungs, lungs and gills (or branchiae) being at the 
same time possessed. Certain genera in the present 
order are, indeed, thus organized, as Proteus, Siren, 
Menobranchus, &c. By an extension of the terra, 
however, it includes those reptiles also beginning 
life as aquatic beings with branchiae, which are 
afterwards lost, true lungs becoming developed, 
with an according change in roufme of the circula- 
tion; such for example are the frogs, newts, &c. 

Many naturalists of great eminence, and among 
them Mr. Bell (see ' British Reptiles'), consider the 
amphibia as constifuting a distinct class ; neverthe- 
less we are inclined, with MM. Dumeril and Bibron, 
to regard them as forming only an order or great 
section of the class Reptilia, and we agree with a 
talented writer in the Penny Cyclopaedia, who ex- 
presses himself in the following words: — "We con- 
fess that, after some consideration and examination, 
we do not think that the organic differences between 
the true reptiles and the amphibia, as they are 
termed, are sufficient to warrant a separation into 
two distinct classes. The amphibia may be con- 
sidered as a division or subclass, but it is too much 
in our opinion to say that a Salamander (Salaman- 
dra) and a Sand-lizard (Lacerta agilis) belong to 
dirf'erent classes." 

With respect to the general characteristics of the 
amphibia, it may be stated that the ventricle of the 
heart is single, and that the skin is naked, being 
defended neither by plates nor,sca!es; it is usually 

R 2 




23C7.— I*a idxl Bangarus. 





23C9.— UaiiUed Sta-Suakp. 




2308.— Bicoloured Sea-Sncke. 



2316.— Group of Terrestrial Sna'ces. 




23:2 — Snafci'S aroused from Hybcnation. 




2;{ll.— Boa attacking a sleeping Lascar. 



124 




23:t;;— Tinted Cc?c:iia. 




2S15.— Head of Wormlike Ca3cilla. 




2317 — Tivo-banded Cacilia 




2318— Two-banded Cascllia. 





2:114.— Skull of Cajcilia. 




2319.— Skeleton of Common Frog. 





2321.— Water-Frog. 



HI I' 




2320.— Skeleton of Cape Dactylsethra. 



2313.- Herpeton tciitaculatus. ' 



12,: 



126 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[FnoGs. 



moist, or clammy, and pours out a fluid secretion. 
As in snakes ami lirards, the cuticle is t'lTquently 
shed and renewed. The lorm is vaiiable ; some- 
times the limbs are wantini;: the skull is united to 
the vertebial column by two condyles, or articulat- 
ing processes, instead of bv a single moce»s, as in 
snakes and lizards. When \\ie fore-limbs are present 
there is (more or less developed) a sternal or breast 
bone ; the ribs are cither rudimentary or wanting. 
The toes are unfurnished with claws, but sometimes 
protected by little homy sheaths. 

We cannot here overlook the curious fact, that in 
some, as the frog, the humid and delicate skin co- 
operates with the lungs, affording an extensive 
surface for the aeration of the blood in the muiute 
capillary vessels. This cutaneous respiration can 
only take jilacc, as various experiments tend to 
prove, while the skin is bedewed with moisture ; 
hence the abundant secretion of fluid for the purpose 
of preserving its necessary degree of humidity ; for, 
as we have often observed, in hot weather, even 
*vhen the iVog has no access to water, its skin is still 
wet; and, as was first ascertained by Townson, a 
peculiar sac, erroneously regarded as the bladder, 
serves as a reservoir of pure fluid for the supply of 
the system with the moisture necessary to the con- 
tinuance of the vital operations.* 

We have said the amphibia commence existence 
as aquatic beings, furnished with fringe-like tufts, 
gills, or branchiae, for the respiration of water, and 
that in some these branchix' remain, even when the 
lungs are developed ; but that in most they become 
obliterated upon the development of those organs. 
Hence are the amphibia resolvable into two pri- 
mary sections, namely, Caducibranchiate amphibia 
(caducus, perishable), and Perennibranchiate amphi- 
bia (Peiennis, persistent). 

Caducibranchiate amphibia. 

Family C^CILIAD^. 

The CsBciliadae are regarded by Cuvier as consti- 
tuting one of the families of the serpents, '' Les ser- 
pents nus ;" he observes however that many natu- 
ralists place them with the amphibia, " though we 
are ignorant whether or not they undergo any me- 
tamorphosis." 

According to Midler, however, gill orifices have 
been detected in a very young specimen of Caecilia j 
in the Museum of Leyden, within which were black- : 
coloured gills or fringes apparently fixed to gill 
arches; the openings communicated freely with the 
cavity of the mouth. This would appear to deter- 1 
mine the question and justify the naturalists who 1 
have assigned these reptiles to the present situa- | 
tion. 

Of an elongated and snake-like form, the exam- 
ples of this family have the skin naked, smooth, and 
viscous, and marked with a series of annular de- 
pressions more or less distinct. In the substance of 
this smooth skin, thin scale-like laminae of minute 
size are found to be embedded, in regular transverse 
rows. The eyes are very small, and sometimes 
either wanting or buried beneath the skin. The 
vertebrae resemble in their form and mode of union 
those of fishes. The head is depressed, the tongue 
thick, rounded, and velvety, and usually presents 
two eminences corresponding to the posterior nos- 
trils. The lower jaw is not articulated to the skull , 
by means of moveable pedicles as in the snakes, and 
the tympanic bones are impacted with the other 
cranial bones. There are palatal as well as max- 
illary teeth ; they are strong, recurved, and simple. 
There are, besides the true nostrils, two little pits or 
depressions, one on each side, beneath the former, 
and generally termed false nostrils. There is no 
sternum, and the ribs are too short to encircle the 
body. Fig. 2.314 exhibits the Skull of Ca:cilia in 
two views. 

The tail is extremely short and blunt, or even 
wanting. 

These singular reptiles are respectively natives of 
the warmer parts of America, of India and the 
Islands, and of Africa. MM. Dumeril and Bibron 
enumerate eight species, assigned to four genera. 

According to M.Laprieur, the Caeciliadae are ovo- 
viviparous, producing six or seven young at a birth : 
their habits, however, are little understood. They 
bury themselves in the humid earth and mud of 
marshy places, piercing their way like worms, often 
to the depth of several feet.- On the surface of the 
ground they creep slowly along, and when in the wa- 
ter swim like the eel, waving the tail and hinder part 
of the boily from right to left. Uuvier states that 
vegetable matters, mud, and sand, have been found 
in the stomach of specimens examined. 

2315. — The Worm-like Cecilia 
(^CcecSia lumbricoides). Head of; a, seen in pro- 
file ; b, with the mouth open, showing the tongue, 

• The ikin not only pxlialfra but nbwrUs water ; according to 
Townjwn, the frojf often fll.s«tb» a wt'i^'lit of water equal to that of its 
own body in a very short time, and only by the skin of the abdo- 
minal surface. It ia easv to »ee liow the moist earth will afford thii 
essential of existence, so that the exhiilation and absorption may 
balance each otlier. 



with its two eminences ; the internal orifices of the 
nostrils, and the teeth. In this species no eyes are 
to be perceived through the smooth skin that covers 
the head; the fosset beneath each nostril is very 
distinct. 

The general form is long and slender, the length 
being about two feet, and the circumference of the 
body not more than that of a common goose-quill. 
There arc no rings or annular depressiuiis, except- 
ing at the hinder part of the body, where they ap- , 
pear varying in number from twelve to Hlteen. The i 
tongue adheres by its edges completely to the lower 
jaw, so that it is not free or capable of protrusion. | 
The general colour is brownish or olive. The spe- 
cies is a native of Surinam. 

2316. — Thk Hinged Cecilia ; 

(Siphonops anmtUUus). Caecilia annulata, aucf. j 

In this genus the body is cylindrical, the head 
blunt, the teeth strong, the tongue large, and ad- 
hering on all sides, with the surface marked with 
vermiculil'orm furrows. • The eyes appear distinct 
through the skin, and a little below and before each 
is placed a fosset or false nostril. 

The ringed Caecilia is an inhabitant of Brazil, Ca- 
yenne, and Surinam, and is remarkable for the dis- 
tinctness of the annulations of the body generally. 
MM. Dum6ril and Bibron state that in no specimen 
have they been able to discover scales in the sub- 
stance of the skin, probably from their extreme mi- 
nuteness and the difficulty of detaching them from 
the close coriaceous tissue. 

Referring to Fig. 2316 — a represents the Head and 
Neck as seen in profile ; b, the open mouth, showing 
the tongue, teeth, and internal orifices of the nos- 
trils ; c, the terminal extremity of the body. 

2317, 2318.— Thb Two-banded C«cilia 

(Rhtnatrema bivittatum). Caecilia bivittata, auct. 

In the genus Rhinatrema the head is depressed 
and elongated, the muzzle obtuse, the tongue vel- 
vety. The eyes are distinct through the skin. No 
fo.ssets either under the eyes or nostrils. 

In the two-banded Caecilia the rings are very nu- 
merous round the body from the head to its termi- 
nation, amounting to three hundred and forty. 
These rings or (olds may be easily raised up, so as 
to expose a great number of circular transparent 
scales relieved by projecting lines, and forming a 
sort of net. Referiing to Fig. 2317, the head and 
under surface of the terminal extremity of the body 
are exhibited with the species : and at Fig. 2318, a 
is a representation of the scales. This species is be- 
lieved to inhabit Cayenne. The general colour is 
black, with a yellow stripe along each side. 

Family RANID^ (FROGS, &c.). 

The Anoura, or Anura, of some naturalists. 

The Ranidae, when in their adult or perfect con- 
dition, are all destitute of a tail ; hence the terms 
anoura, or anurous batrachians, by w hich they have 
been denominated. In these animals the form of 
the body is broad and short ; the limbs are four, 
of which the hinder are mostly far longer and more 
muscular than the anterior. The head is flat and 
broad, the gape wide ; the cerebral cavity small, and 
yet the brain scarcely fills it. 

Fig. 2319 represents the Skeleton of the Common 
Frog; and Fig. 2320 that of the Cape DactyJaethia, 
one of the Pipas or tongueless Bajrachians. 

In the frog the veitebrae are only ten in number, 
in the pipa eight ; both are destitute of ribs : the 
pelvic portion is greatly elongated. The sternum 
is highly developed, and a large poition of it is 
often cartilaginous; it receives the two clavicles, 
and the coracoid bones, which support the scapulae. 

At Fig. 2320, a repiesents the sternum of the 
common frog ; b that of the Dactylaethra. In the 
latter there is a single free caudal bone, but which 
has nothing of the vertebral form. 

In the true frogs (Phancioglosses raniformes of 
Dnmcril) there are small teeth in the upper jaw, 
and in most there are even palatal teeth, or rather 
pointed processes forming a part of the bones to 
which they are attached, as in the cases of certain 
fislie.3. In the toads, however, the jaws are destitute 
of teeth. 

The food of these reptiles consists of insects, 
slugs, Sec, in the capture of which the tongue per- 
forms a leading part. This organ, which is suft and 
fleshy, and lubricated with a glutinous saliva, does 
not rest upon anything analogous to the os hyoides ; 
but is fixed to the inner part of the front of the 
lower jaw, so that when in lepOse its base is anterior, 
and it lies back, its apex pointing towards the 
gullet, just the reverse of the ordinary position. 

When the animal darts it forth at the prey, it be- 
comes considerably elongated, and turns on the pivot 
I of its anterior fixture, being reversed in such a man- 
ner that the surface which was undermost when the 
tongue was lying in a state of repose in the mouth is 
now the uppermost, the original position being re- 
gained when it turns on its pivot back again into 



the mouth. The rapidity with which the frog or toad 

launches this organ at insects or slugs is extraortli- 
nary, insomuch that the eye can scaicely follow the 
movement ; never is the aim missfd ; the prey 
touched by the tongue adheres iirmly, the viscid 
saliva being very tenacious, and is instantaneously 
carried to the back of the mouth, and swallowed. 

We have often presented slugs on bits of straw 
or stick to toads, and watched with surprise the sud- 
den disappearance of the prey, which seemed to 
vanish from the stick as if by magic. 

It would appear that the senses of taste and smell 
are not very acute in these animals ; their sight, 
however, is quick and accurate ; there are lachry- 
mal glands, and the tunica conjunctiva is pierced so 
as to permit the tears to run into the cavity of the 
mouth. 

With respect to the organs of hearing there is con- 
siderable difference among these reptiles. In the 
true frogs and the tree-frogs, the large tympanic 
membrane is very distinct, just behind the eye, and 
indicated by the delicacy of its structure compared 
with the other integuments of the heaxl. In the 
toads it is not apparent ; and in the ptpas it is pro- 
tected by a sort of valve, as in the crocodile, in order 
that it may not be injured by the pressure of the 
water when the animals resoit to great depths. A 
wide passage (the Eustachian tube) communicates 
from the internal auditory cavity with the back of 
the mouth (fauces), so that the tympanum is sub- 
jected to an equal pressure under every atmospheric 
change. It is indeed to be observed, " that the ex- 
tent and freedom of the Eustachian passage are in 
relation to the size and exposed condition of the 
tympanic membrane, and perhaps also to its form, 
which is convex externally, and therefore the more 
liable to be affected by undue pressure from without, 
being only supported behind at a small part of its 
superficies." (Professor Owen.) 

The voice of the frogs generally consists, as is 
well known, of a deep guttural croak ; though some 
at least are capable of uttering a shrill cry of terror 
or distress. This croaking. is produced by the air 
being driven from the glottis into the puffed-out 
cavity of the mouth, or into certain guttural sacculi, 
which in the males of many species, and particu- 
larly of the tree-frogs, are very large. This noise 
they can produce under the water as well as on the 
land : 

"Qaamvis sint sub aqua, sub aqua maledicere tentant ; 
Vox quoque jam rauca est, inuataque colla tumescunt.*^ 

Ovid. Met., lilir. vi. fab. 6. 

M. Dumfiril says " la plupart (des bafrachiens) 
coassent, mais ce coassenient est tres-different dans 
.les diverses especes des grenouilles ; les unes 
beuglent, aboient, grognent, ou ricannent ; d'autres 
sifflent, piaulent, ou pipent. Certains crapauds pio- 
duisent les sons flutes de divers instrumens a vent." 

The locomotion of these reptiles on land consists 
of walking, running, and leaping, with different de- 
grees of rapidity and address. Most are admirable 
swimmers, propelling themselves through the water 
by vigorous strokes of the hind limb aided by their 
large webbed feet. The muscles of the thigh and 
leg in the frog offer a great similarity to the ar- 
rangement of the same parts in the human subject. 
All hybernate. The frog seeks the mud at the bot- 
tom of marshes, lakes, and ponds, congregating in 
multitudes, which huddle together, forming a com- 
pacted mass; the toad chooses some hole in the 
ground, under stones, or the roots of a tree, and 
there passes the months of winter. It is time, how- 
ever, that we notice our pictorial specimens. 

2321, 2322.— The Water-Fkog 

(Rana Halecina, Kalm). Rana palustris, Gui5r. ; 
Rana pipiens, Schreb ; Shad-frog, Bartram. 

This species in North America represents the 
green or esculent frog of the European continent, 
which it closely resembles in habits and colotn-ing. 
In the male water-frog, however, there are no fis- 
sures at the angles of the mouth, as in the European 
species, for admitting the external protrusion of the 
vocal sacculi ; and the head is of a more pointed 
form. The orifice by which the air penetrates into 
the vocal sacs is situated on each side immediately 
under the Eustachian tube leading to the internal 
ear. This species is extremely active, and when 
pursued will take leaps clearing eight or ten feet at 
a spring. It frequents the borders of ponds and 
lakes. The general colour is brown, olive, olive 
grey, olive brown, or bright yellowish green ; the 
back is ornamented with black rounded spots, bor- 
dered with yellow ; there is always one over each 
orbit, and sometimes on the forehead ; a black 
streak runs from the eye to the tip of the muzzle: 
another forked at its posterior extremity runs above 
the tympanum, and a third is seated on the forepart 
of the shoulder; the jaws are marbled with black 
and while, and a whitish yellow or bronzed stripe 
runs along each side ol the head, and also along each 
side of the back, where the cutaneous glands are 
apparent. The hind limbs are maikcj with large 



Toads.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



127 



spots of black edged with whitish. The voice of 
this IVos is a chirping or piping note, not unlike that 
of a bird. 

2323.— The Bull-Frog 

{Ranamugiens). This species, which is common 
in Xorlh America, attains to a very large size, mea- 
suring upwards of six or seven inches in the length 
of tlie head and body. It is essentially aquatic in 
its habits, seldom wandering far Irom the water, 
to which it immediately resorts for safety ; and 
at the l3ottom of which it makes a hole or fissure, 
its habitual hiding-place. It is said to live in 
pairs. It is extremely voracious, preying upon 
fishes, freshwater moUusks, various reptiles, and 
even snakes; young water-fowl also fall a prey 
to its rapacity, and broods of young ducks often en- 
tirely disappear, to the surprise of their owner, who 
little suspects the real depredator. The power of 
this frog is very great, and it has been known to 
clear without apparent effort a barrier of three feet_ 
in elevation. During the spring and summer, its 
loud croak may be heard resounding amidst the 
swamps or the lakes, even to a very great distance. 
Audubon says " it is particularly fond of such small 
pure streams of water as are thickly shaded by 
overhanging bushes; it sits for hours during the 
middle of the day basking in the sun, near the 
margin of the water, to which it betakes itself by a 
great leap, on the least appearance of danger, div- 
ing at once to the bottom, or swimming to the op- 
posite side. In the southern states it is heard at all 
seasons, but princip-illy daring the spring and sum- 
mer months." He adds that the hind-legs are 
white, tender, and excellent eating. Some speci- 
mens weigh as much as half a pound. In the West 
Indies and South America an allied species of huge 
size, also called bull-frog, and by the French Cra- 
paud (Rana ocellata, Lilin.), is reared for the use 
of the table. It is the R. gigas and R. pachypus 
of Spix; Cystignathus ocellatus, Wagler. 

2324.— The Painted Frog 

{Discoglossus pictus). The genus Discoglossus has 
the tongue rounded, entire, and free at its posterior 
edge. There is a row of palatal teeth ; the tympa- 
num is concealed under the skin; there are a few 
folds or glandular eminences about the sides of the 
neck and shoulders. The toes are completely free ; 
five in number, of which one is a mere tubercle ; 
the webs of the hind-toes are short ; the males are 
destitute of vocal sacs. 

The painted frog is one of the few species found 
in Africa ; it exists in Egypt, and along the Medi- 
terranean shores: and occurs also in Greece, Sicily, 
and Sardinia. It frequents rivers, streams, and 
lakes, and both freshwater and saline morasses, 
like the green or esculent frog, in company with 
which M. Bibron says that he has often seen it in 
Sicily. It lives on insects, spiders, and both terres- 
trial and aquatic mollusks. It is said to abound in 
the Nile ; we may, however, observe, that the green 
frog of continental Europe also exists in Egypt and 
Algeria, as well as throughout the greater part of 
Asia to Japan. 

The painted frog is subject to considerable va- 
riation of colouring ; it is generally marbled above 
with grey or brown, on an olive or yellowish green 
ground, with a white line down the middle of the 
back, and sometimes also along each side. 

2325. — Boie's Ceratophris 
(Ceratophris Boiei, Wied.). Ceratophris granosa, 
Cuv. 

The singular frogs of this genus, all American, 
have a large head and a granular or tuberculous 
skin ; the tongue is heart-shaped ; the edge of the 
upper eyelid is prolonged into a point, giving 
a horned appearance to the top ofthe head, which 
is covered with ridges and asperities more or less 
decided. The mouth is very wide ; the limbs ra- 
ther short ; the toes four ; the webs very little de- 
veloped. The surface of the body is covered with 
tubercles, and one species (C. dorsata) is defended 
by a sort of dorsal buckler formed by the union 
of numerous osseous laminae in the substance of the 
skin. 

It would seem that the males have the vocal 
pouch, at least such has been detected in the C. 
Boiei. In this species the palpebral prolongations 
are very remarkable, and pointed, and the whole of 
the surface of the body is covered with granular 
tubercles. Two ridges run down the back from the 
palpebral horns, festooned on each side by brown, 
the general ground-colour being yellowish. There 
is a triangular mark of black on the top of the 
head. Under parts yellowish spotted vath black. 
It is a native of Cayenne. 

We may now pass to the tree-frogs (Les 
PhancroglohsesHylstformes of M. Dumcril). These 
active little creatures are essentially arboreal in 
their habits; bird-like they pass their time amidst 
the foliage of the trees, perching upon the leaves 



and twigs, and spring from one to another with 
wonderful quickness and celerity. There they 
pursue their insect prey, or lurk for it, and 
seize it as it passes. If we look at the toes, we find 
them each provided with large expanded suckers 
or discs, by means of which they adhere even to 
the sinooth'est leaf, or lurk with the back down- 
wards on its under surface, as the Geckos, and so 
proceed from one to another with singular address. 

Exposed to numerous enemies, they are capable 
of assuming dift'erent tints, by way of masking their 
presence, with almost instantaneous celerity ; or of 
adapting them so as to blend with surrounding ob- 
jects. They have also another singularity ; the skin 
of the under-suiface, instead of being smooth, is 
covered with granular glands, pierced by a multi- 
tude of pores, by means of which the dew or rain 
spread on the surface of the leaves is rapidly ab- 
sorbed for the supply of the system. This group is 
divided into several genera. By far the greater 
number of species are American. One only is 
found in Europe and Afiica. 

2326.— Thk Green Trke-Frog 
{Hyla viridis). Rana arborea, Linn. 

This beautiful little creature is found over the 
whole of middle and Southern Europe and Northern 
Africa ; it occurs also in Japan. It has never been 
observed in our island, though it is not uncommon 
in France. 

It is amidst the foliage of woods that this 
species dwells during the months of summer, where 
it displays the habit of a cat,. in watching for and 
darting upon its prey : it lurks amongst the leaves, or 
under their canopy, and with open mouth launches 
itself upon the unwary insect, which it touches with 
its tongue and instantly swallows. Some have com- 
pared its manners to those of a flycatcher, from its 
restless activity and unceasing repetition of short 
darts which it makes from leaf to leaf as it watches 
the movements of the insects flitting about it. 
Towards the end of April the tree-frog quits its 
leafy abode for the water, in order to deposit its 
eggs, and it also hybernates like the common frog 
in the mud at the bottom of swamps and marshes. 
The young remain in their tadpole state for about 
two months, when their final change takes place, 
and tliey make their way to the adjacent thickets, 
where vast swarms are sometimes seen all in cease- 
less motion, like flocks of minute birds. This 
species does not acquire its full size till the fourth 
year. The gular vocal sac of the male is capable 
of enormous distention ; and the loud croak of num- 
bers assembled together, uttering their voices in 
chorus, may be heard to a considerable distance. 

The general colour of this frog is a fine green 
above, white beneath ; a yellow stripe bordered 
with pale violet extends along the sides of the head 
and body, and down the hind-legs to the feet; 
and a similar stripe branches off and runs down the 
fore-limbs to the feet. Alter the spring the animal 
changes to brown, which soon gives place to grey, 
mottled with reddish, and this passes into blue ; the 
green reappears with the return of spring. 

2327. — The Bicoloured Tbee-Frog 
(Phjllomedusa bicolor). Rana bicolor, Gmel. 

The most remarkable distinguishing character in 
this genus is the opposability of the first finger of 
the fore-paws to the three others, and of the first 
two toes of the hind-paws to the three others ; and 
by this arrangement, the hold, secured on leaves or 
twigs, is rendered extremely secure. The back 
part of the head is extremely broad, from the de- 
velopment of large parotid glands which begin 
behind each eye, and extend to the axilla, covering 
the scapulary region, and continued in a narrow 
line along each side. 

The Bicoloured Tree-frog is a native of Cayenne 
and Brazil ; its general colour above is a beautiful 
blue ; the sides are marked with white spots, encircled 
by chestnut ; a white line, bordered by brown, runs 
along the outer edge of the fore-arm and of the leg 
and foot. Under parts white, sometimes variegated 
with brown or chestnut. 

The Toads next present themselves to our notice 
(les Phaneroglosses bufoniformes of M. Duraeril). 
The toads in general have an inflated body, a warty 
or tubercular skin, and a tumour behind each eye, 
produced by a large parotid gland. The males 
have for the most part a gular vocal sac. In some 
genera the toes are furnished with sucking-discs 
(viz. Dendrobates, and Hylsedactylus), which re- 
semble the true tree-frogs in tlieir habits. 

The upper jaw is altogether destitute of teeth. 
In the more typical forms the hind-limbs do not much 
exceed the fore-limbs in length, and their locomo- 
tion is a sort of crawl, or succession of short hops. 

Most are nocturnal in their habits, and come 
abroad with the dusk in quest of prey. 

2328.— The Common Toad 

{Bufo vvlffmis). This species is too well known to 

need a detailed description. Though not very at- 



•.•i 



tractive in its appearance, the toad is far from me- 
riting the opprobrium which has been lavished upon 
it. To the gardener it is a useful assistant, as it 
devours slugs, earwigs, caterpillars, and beetles. It 
has been celebrated for two things, namely, the 
brightness of its eyes, and its poison. Its eyes are 
certainly brilliant, and, notwithstanding the poet's 
assertion, the only jewel it wears in its head. With 
regard to its being poisonous, we may obseive that 
the glandular tubercles of its skin pour out an acrid 
secretion ; and this is intended evidently as a defence, 
for we have often seen a dog seize one of these ani- 
mals and instantly drop it, shaking his head in evi- 
dent distress, while frothy saliva filled his mouth, 
and continued to flow for a considerable time. The 
parotid glands open externally by numerous pores, 
and give out a milky fetid humour. The common 
belief that the toad •■ spits venom " is absurd. 

The toad is easily rendered familiar. Mr. Bell 
records a notice of one which would sit on one of his 
hands, and eat from the other; and the story of 
Mr. Arscotfs toad in Devonshire which lived for 
thirty-six years domesticated, and was killed by ac- 
cident, has been often quoted from Pennant. 

It is to Mr. Bell that we owe the first autlientic 
account of the manner in which the toad disengages 
itself from its slough; the cuticle slits down the 
middle of the back and belly, thereby allowing the 
legs to be withdrawn in rotation ; it is then rolled 
into a ball, pushed by the two paws into the mouth, 
and swallowed at a single gulp. 

Like the frog, the toad deposits its eggs in the 
water, but rather later in the spring. In August 
the tadpoles have completed their translbrraation, 
and creeping ashore disperse themselves over the 
land. Large troops of these young toads may often 
be met with. 

Most persons have heard of the marvellous ac- 
counts of living toads found imbedded in the hearts 
of trees, or in solid blocks of stone ; and it must be 
confessed that many of the instances are supported 
by no mean authority ; Smellie (in his ' Philosophy 
of Natural History ), Guettard (in ' Memoire sur 
diffSrentes Parties des Sciences et desArts' 1771), Ed- 
wards, and Mr. Thomas (in ' Silliman's Journal ') 
respectively notice examples of the occurrence in 
question. Be it however observed, that the stone 
or wood was never rigidly examined, nor is anything 
ever stated to disprove the possibility of a small 
aperture, communicating with the external surface, 
through which air, moisture, and insects may have 
entered ; indeed, as Dr. Buckland says, " The at- 
tention of the discoverer is always directed more to 
the toad than to the minutiis of the state of the 
cavity in which it was contained," 

M. Herissant in 1777, Dr. Edwards in 1817, and 
Dr. Buckland in 1825-6, have proved by a series of 
experiments, that when deprived of air these ani- 
mals speedily perish ; but that they will survive for 
many months without food. Dr. Buckland's conclu- 
sions are that toads cannot live a year excluded 
totally from atmospheric air, and, from experiments 
made by enclosing these animals in cells cut out in 
oolite, that they cannot in all probability survive 
two years entirely excluded from food. ' Zool 
Journal,' vol. v. 

It would seem then that accident must have in- 
troduced the toads in question into the prisons in 
which they have occasionally been found; that 
there they received food and air, and grew till too 
large to make their exit by the aperture which 
once admitted them ; and which itself became much 
narroived or partially blocked up ; but still allow- 
ing sufficient air and moisture (most probably also 
minute insects) for the support of the system in a 
sort of torpid condition. Here then they would live 
till the blow of the hammer or axe set them at 
liberty, destroying at the same time all trace of the 
orifice or fissure which admitted them, and through 
which they received their scanty nutriment. 

To suppose that toads imbedded in stone are 
thousands of years old, the living relics of a world 
gone by and coeval with. the rock around them, is 
palpably absurd. 

2329. — The Natter-jack 
(Bnfo Calamita). Bufo viridis, Laurenti ; Bufocru- 
ciatus, Schneid. ; Bufo variabilis, Marr. 

This species is spread through the greater part 
of Europe and Western Asia, as well as Northern 
Africa. In England it is tolerably common in cer- 
tain localities ; it has been found on Blackheath, 
Putney Common, in various parts of Lincolnshire, 
Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk. Mr. Bell quotes Sir W. 
Jardine's account ofthe occurrence of this reptile in 
a marsh on the coast of the Solway Frith, in brackish 
water, and within a hundred yards of spring-tide 
high-water mark. They are, it is added, very abun- 
dant for six or seven miles along the coast. Dry 
spots, however, are its favourite haunts, excepting 
at the breeding season, when it visits the water, it 
is less crawling and slow in its movements than the 
common toad ; and will even run with alertness for 




2330.— Mitred Toad. 




2S27.— Blcoloured Tr^e-Frog. 




A 3^ 

2331 BloiUiunU TouX. 




232!.— Water-Frogs. 




23n.-L'ii'.l-I"n^. 




;32.-Marbleil Toad. 




2325.— Boie's Ceratonluis. 



2329.-NaUei>J!tclC 





j[ 3323.— Common Toad. ' 




2324.— I'ainled Frugs. 



2326.— Green Tree-Frogs. 



128 





233:;.— Gessner'» Fossil Toad. 
April 23. April 26. April 28. April 30. 





2.i24.— Stirlncm Toad. 



2.(^ M»y3.Q May 4.^ Ma, 5.(5) 




2343.— Tadpole at 22 and 37 dnyi, 

No. QJ. Vol. II. 



2338 — Common Water Newt. Female. 
[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.! 



:i337.— Common Water Newt. Male. 
lOft 



130 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Tritoks. 



a sliort distance. Its general colour vRrics, bein)? 
prev, brown, yellow, or olive, with markinits of a. 
darker lint, mostly with a yellowish line down the 
middle ol' the back. 

2330.— Thb Mitrkd Toad 
(Birfo margnritlfer, Dand ). Olilophis margariti- 
I'era, Cuv. ; Raiia marj^ritilera, Grael. 

Till* upeties, wliiuh i* a nalive of Braiil and Gui- 
ana, is (listinjriiished by a crest on each side of the 
head, extending from the anterior pari of the orbit 
to the parotid plaml, whence a foid of skin runs 
alonir each side of the body and down to the knee. 
The skin of the hinder quarters of the hotly and 
limlwis so loose and so little adherent to the muscles, 
that the thighs and adjacent parts appear as if en- 
shrouded in a sac. The general colour is olive, yel- 
low, or brown; often nrilh raarblings of a deeper 
lint. Under parts whitish, marbled with grey and 
brown. The muzzle is pointed, the head trian- 
gular. 

2331.— Thk Bi-coloured Toad 

(Enrn/stoma ovale, Fitzin.). Uana ovalis, Shaw; 
Oxyrliynchus bicolor, Valenc, Guuriii, and Cuvier; 
Stenocej>lia!us microps, Tschudi. 

This liltle reptile, remarkable for its small sharp- 
pointed head, is a^iative of South America. 

Jn general the upjier parts are chestnut, the 
under "parts white : sometimes the upper parts are 
brown with a wash of slate l)lue ; the under parts 
marbled or spotted with yellow and brownish red. 
Some have the throat black, and in all there is a 
whitish stripe along the back of the thighs. 

2332.— The Marbleb Toad 

(Upertklon nuirmoralum, Bibr.). Engystoma mar- 
moratum, Cuvier. 

or this species little is known ; it was discovered 
by Leschenault in the interior of India. 

' Its general colour is olive (green perhaps when 
alive) marbled with large markings of brown. Under 
parts white, excepting in the males, which have the 
throat black. In this species there .iii.' (as an ex- 
ception to the rule) a few small teeth in the palate. 
The vocal sac of the male is capable of great ex- 
tension. 

23.33. — Gessner's Palj»phrynos 

{Palaoplirynos Gessneri, Ttchudi). A fossil spe- 
cies of toad, the relics of which, with those of 
another species, I'elophilus Agassizii, are obtained 
from the (Eningen beds. Fossil frogs have been 
found in the coal formation of the Rhine, together 
with the remains of certain fishes of the genus Leu- 
ciscus, viz. L. macnirus and L. papyraceus. 

We pass from the toads to the pipas, or Pliiyna- 
glosses pipajformes of Dumeril and Bibron, so called 
from the total absence of the tongue ; in addition 
to this, the internal auditory cavities communicate 
with the mouth only by means of a single minute 
opening in the middle of the posterior part of the 
palate. Two genera are known, each containing 
only one species, viz. Dactylethra and Pipa. 

2334.— The Surinam Toad 

{Pipa Americann, Laur.). Bufo dorsiger, Latr. 

In this strange reptile, the head is large, flattened, 
and triangular, with the nostrils prolonged in the 
form of a little cutaneous tube ; the eyes are very 
minute and vertical, the eyelids reduced to a simple 
rudiment incapable of closing over the eyes. There 
are no teeth, either on the jaws or palate, nor are 
parotid glands apparent. The anterior paws have 
each four fingers, terminating in four star-like 
points ; the hind limbs are short and thick, the feet 
large, and the toes, five in number, completely 
webbed. The body is broad and flat ; a little barbule 
(barbillon) hangs on each side of the upper jaw, and 
an ear-like appendage on each angle of the mouth. 
The skin differs from that of all other Batracians, 
being covered with minute hard granules ; amongst 
which are scattered small conical tubercles of a horny 
consistence. The male is distinguished by an enor- 
mous larynx formed like a triangular box of bone, 
within which are two movable pieces, the action of 
which influences the intonation of the voice. 

The mode in which the eggs of this reptile are 
hatched, and the circumstances connected with the 
development of the young, are most extraordinary. 
It would appear that as fast as the female deposits 
her eggs, the male who attends her arranges them 
on her broad back, to the number of fifty or upwards. 
The contact of the skin with these egirs appears to 
produce a sort of inflammation ; the skin of the back 
swells, and becomes covered with pits or cells, 
which enclose each a single egg, the surface of the 
back resembling the closed cells of a honeycomb. 
The female now betakes herself to the water, and in 
these cells the eggs are not only hatched, but the 
tadpoles undergo their metamorphosis, emerging 
in a perfect condition, though very small, alter a 
'apse of eighty-two days from the time in which the 



eggs were placed in their respective pits. M. Bi- 
bron says, that the cells occupying the middle 
portion of the back are, according to his own obser- 
vations, those which are the flrst cleared of the 
young, "bei-ause doubtless they are the first which 
are formed, or the first occupied."* These pits are 
only in the skin, and do not penetrate into the mus- 
cular tissue beneath, nor communicate with the 
interior of the body. Fig. 23:1:') shows the dispo- 
sition of these cells and their situation on the skin, 
which is thrown back so as to expose the muscles 
below. The small separate figures are tadpoles in 
different stages of development. 

The pipa, or Surinam toad, is of large size, of a 
brown or olive colour above, whitish below ; it in- 
htbits the marshes and swamps in the forests of 
Guiana, Brazil, and other parts of South America. 
According to Sebaund iMadame Merian, the negroes 
eat its flesh. 

Before quitting the Banidaeor anurous Batracians, 
we mnv allmle to a belief of ancient date which yet 
prevaiTs, that young frogs and toads are occasionally 
showered down with heavy rains, and that in great 
abundance, so as to cover considerable spaces of 
ground, where none had been previously observed ; 
some have called in the aid of waterspouts, whirl- 
winds, and similar causes, to account for their 
elevation into the regions of air; and some have 
even thought they were formed in the clouds, whence 
they were precipitated. It has been generally in 
August, and often alter a season of drought, that 
these hordes of frogs have made their appearance. 
Redi's explanation is doubtless the correct one : 
these loads and frogs, he says, " do not appear until 
it has rained for some time ; but these animals had 
been hatched many days previously, or rather, had 
quitted the water in which they were developed as 
tadpoles, having undergone their complete trans- 
formation. These little frogs then lay concealed in 
the chinks of the earth, under stones and clods, 
where in consequence of their lying ipotionless, and 
often also on account of their dusky colour, they 
escaped the eye." With this account M. Dumeril 
agrees, observing that "the precise peiiod of the 
year, the circumstance of rain always preceding the 
appearance of these young frogs and toads, which 
bear the signs of their recent transformation, and 
generally the total absence of any violent commotion 
of the wind, leave us in no doubt as to their origin. 
We have ourselves observed the phenomenon in 
question, once in I'icardy, near Amiens, and once 
in the marshy meadows near Marbella in Spain : in 
the latter instance, it was a host of little frogs that 
made their appearance and covered our clothes, as 
M. Desgennettes, now present at the Scientific 
Meeting, may recollect." For further details we 
refer to the 'Erpetologie Goncrale,' vol. viii. p. 223. 

We now pass to the Caudate Amphibia, les Uro- 
dcles of MM. Dumeril and Bibron. 

Family SALAMANDRID7I': (TRITONS AND 
NEWTS). 

233G. — A Group of British Water-Newts : 

a, the Common Water-Newt (Triton cristatus) ; b. 
the Common Smooth Newt (Lissotriton punctatus) ; 

c, the Straight-lipped Water-Newt (iViton Bibronii) ; 

d, the Palmated Water-Newt (Lissotriton palmipes). 

2337. — The Common Water-Newt 
(^Diion cristatus), male. 

2338. — The Common Water-Newt 
(_Triton cristatus), female. 

2339.- The Common Smooth Newt 

(^Lissotriton punctattts). n, Male, 6, Female. 

Of the Water-Newts, four species inhabit the 
ponds, ditches, and clear sluggish or standing waters 
of our island. Lizard-like as these reptiles are in 
appearance, they must not be confounded with the 
lacertine group, with which LinnsBus, overlooking 
their true characteristics, associated them under the 
common term of Litcerta. Like the frog, the newts 
begin their existence in a tadpole state, furnished 
wijh tufted gills or branchifefor aquatic respiration, 
which become ultimately lost, and are replaced by 
true lungs adapted for a different medium. The 
process of this structural change, which is essentially 
the same as in the frog, we shall sketch as briefly as 
possible consistent with clearness. 

On its first exclusion from the egg, the tadpole of 
the water-newt exhibits on the sides of the neck the 
lobes of the branchiae in a simple state, anterior to 
which are a pair of holdere, by which the animal 
attaches itself to objects in the water. Jn about 
three weeks on the average, the anterior limbs have 
become developed, with terminal feet, fourtoed and 
distinct, the holders have disappeared, the branchial 

• It woiiltl seem that in females which have not as yet laid p^jl's, 
these pit* are not to Ijc seen ; tliey begin to l)e developed when the 
eg;(i are first arran)re<l on the bock, tlie skin of which, aHer the yonn;{ 
hnvo quitted their tenement^ appearing honeycomlied all over. The 
cells afterwards become ({rotlualiy obliterated. 



tufts have acquired a fringed character, and the eyes 
have a.ssumed a definite outline; the little creature 
now moves about with considerable rapulily, pro- 
pelling itself through the water by the undtilatoiy 
movements of its laterally flattened tail. In a short 
time alter this, the anteiior limbs become more 
perfect, the hind limbs begin to sprout, and the 
uranchial tufts, three on each side, are much en- 
larged and finely plumed. In a short time, the hind 
limbs, and feet with five toes, are completely formed, 
the boily has attained its nearly perfect figure, and 
the branchia; have assumed a deeper colour and 
firmer texture. The lungs are now rapidly develop- 
ing, a change in the routine of the circulation is 
gradually taking place, and the branchiae are be- 
coming absorbed : towards the middle or close of 
autumn they disappear, and air instead of waier 
becomes the medium of respiration. A similar 
transformation takss place in the tadpole of the 
frog, with this addition, that the hind limbs fii-st 
appear, and the compressed tail becomes absoibed 
with the obliteration of the branchine. In the braii- 
chisB of the tadpole of the newt and frog, when the 
limbs have made some progress, the circulation of 
the blood, when viewed through a good microsccp!-, 
is calculated to excite the greatest admiration ; their 
transparency is such as to [(ermit the currents of 
globules rapidly coursing each ether to be distinctly 
seen, as they ascend the arteries and return by the 
veins to the aorta. We may here state that in the 
tadpole condition of these animals, the circulation 
of the blood resembles that of fishes.' The heart 
consists of one auricle and one ventricle ; the auricle 
receives the blood of the general system, and imme- 
diately transmits it to the ventricle, which is mus- 
t, cular; from this ventricle it is propelled into an 
I arterial bulb (bulbus arteriosus), and thence tbrougli 
i! a system of minute branchial arteries, and becomes 
I subjected to the action of oxygen; from these arteries 
\ it merges into the branchial veins or returning 
■ vessels, which ultimately unite to form a systematic 
: aorta, without the intervention of a second ventricle. 
|i As the branchisB become obliterated, the pulmonary 
! arteries develop, and the lungs begin to expand, till 
ji at last the branchise are lost, and the heart and cii- 
I culation have assumed new characters. The heart 
now consists of two auricles and one ventricle : (ine 
auricle of small size receives the arterialized blocd 
from the lungs; the other, which is capacious, the 
venous blood from the system, and both transmit 
their contents through valvular doors into the com- 
mon chamber of the ventricle. The fluid thus mixed 
is sent through the bulbus arteriosus, and thence 
partly to the general system and partly through the 
pulmonary arteries, to undergo in the lungs the action 
of oxygen. The development of the tadpole of 
Triton cristatus, as observed by Rusconi, may be 
easily understood by reference to the following illus- 
trations. 

Fig. 2340 exhibits the evolution of the egg kept 
on the leaf, as deposited by the female. The stages 
are denoted by dates, from the beginning to the 
time in which the young animal is about to emerge. 
Each phase of the egg is shown of the natural size, 
accompanied by a magnified view of the same 
below. Fig. 2341 shows the tadpole on the day of 
its leaving the egg. May Clh ; a, as magnified ana 
seen from below ; h b, are the two eminences lormcd 
by the globes of the eyes, and between them is a 
slight depression which afterwards becomes th.' 
mouth ; c, is the holder of the right side ; d, the 
gills of the same side ; e, a rudiment of the fore 
limbs of the same side ; f, the same animal in pro- 
file ; g, the same seen from above. 
I Fig. 2342 shows the development on the IStli of 
May, twelve days alter exclusion ; a and b are mag- 
nified representations. The fore limbs are loleiably 
developed, and the branchiae are becoming finged. 
Fig. 2343 represents the same animal, as it appears 
on May 28th and June 12th ; a a, natural size ; b, 
magnified. In the latter, the branchiae are beauti- 
fully fringed, and the hinder limbs are in process of 
development. Fig. 2344 shows the young newt in 
its last stage, July ISlh, the branchiae now beginning 
to shorten. This obliteration of the brancbiae goes 
on for five or six days more, when they become re-- 
duced to mere bud-liUe eminences ; the branchial 
apertures have closed, the skeleton has become 
firmer, teeth have appeared, and by the 27th of 
July all traces of its former condition have entirely 
passed away ; it has changed from the state of a fish_ 
to that of a reptile. It wouUI appear that the - 
changes dcscribeil are retarded or accelerated ac- 
cording to the temperalure. In our i.^land the 
process is more protracted than in the warmer parts 
of the continent. 

The great water newt (Triton cristalus) attains 
to the length of more than six inches, and is one of 
the most atpiatic of its genus, residing almost con- 
stantly in the water; we have, however, cajitured it 
in meadows at the latter part of summer. Its biialit 
orange-coloured abdomen, with distinct round s]).its 
of black, together with its size, prevent the possibi- 



NH^vT^,.] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



I3J 



lity of confounding it with any other species, except 
perhaps the Triton palmipes, of which the under 
surface is saffron yellow, or, as Latreille states, white 
without spots. The great water-newt is active and 
voracious; it I'eeds during tlie spring and summer 
on the tadpole of the fro?, and also upon the smaller 
species of newt, which it attacks and seizes with the 
utmost determination; it will also prey upon worms, 
insects, and niollusks, and may be taken hy means 
of a hook baited with a small worm. It swims 
vigorously, lashing its compressed tail from side to 
side, its limbs being so disposed as to oii'er no resist- 
ance to the water ; we have seen it crawl slowly at 
the bottom of clear ditches, its well as on the land, 
where, however, its movements are inert. It hyber- 
nates like the frog, generally in the mud at the 
bottom of ponds and ditches. Mr. Bell however 
states that he has found it hybernating under stones, 
and we ourselves on one occasion, early in the spring, 
saw several creeping out from under gome large 
flags placed to suppoit a bank ; on taking up one by 
the tail, as we well remember, the tail, to our dis- 
mav, broke short off, and continued for some time to 
be "lapi.lly agitated. On awaking from its lethargy 
in the spring, the male begins to assume a mem- 
branous dorsal and caudal crest, by which he is at 
once distinguished from the female. The dor.sal 
crest has its edge indented, but that along the IhII 
lias the edge even ; with the completion of the crest 
the colours become brighter and more decided, and 
the animal is more lively and vigorous. At the 
latter end of April and during the months of May 
and .June, the female deposits her eggs, not as in the 
case of the frog, in multitudes all agglutinated 
together in a gelatinous medium, but one by one, 
each in a distinct spot from the other. Resting on 
the leaf of some aquatic plant, she folds it by means 
of tier two hinder leet, and in the duplication of the 
leaf thus made, deposits a single egg, gluing at the 
same time the folded parts together, thus concealing 
and protecting the enclosed deposit. This process 
was first described by Rusconi, and has been mi- 
nutely detailed by Mr. Bel! from personal observa- 
tion. The membranous dorsal crest of the male 
continues till autumn, when it is gradually absorbed ; 
a trace, however, of the caudal crest still remains. 
In this species, the upper lip is slightly pendulous, 
the teeth are numerous and minute, a double longi- 
tudinal series occurring on the palate ; the tongue 
is semi-globular, slightly free at the sides, and 
pointed behind ; the head is flattened, the bcdy 
cylindrical, corrugated, and covered with minute 
tubercles ; there are two patches of simple pores on 
each side of the head, and a line of similar pores at 
distant intervals along each side of the body. The 
upper parts are dusky black or yellowish brown, 
with darker round spots ; the under parts are orange 
red, with round spots of black ; the sides are dotted 
with white, and the sides of the tail are to a greater 
or less extent of a silvery white. 

The Common Smooth Newt (Llssotrilon piinc- 
tattis. Bell) differs con^derably in its habits from 
the srreat water-newt. It is much more terrestrial, 
frequenting damp places, and is often found in 
ceilais and underground vaults. Shaw, indeed, in 
his ' (leneral Zoology,' asserts that the common 
neivt is altogether a terrestrial species, and contra- 
dicts the statement of Linnseus that during its 
tadpole condition it inhabits the water ; he says, " I 
can sHlely affirm that I have met with specimens 
in perfectly dry situations so extremely minute as 
scarcely to equal half an inch in length, which 
appear to differ in no respect, except in magnitude, 
from the full-grown animal." We have seen the 
game in damp cellars in abundance, and whatever 
difficulties there may be in accounting for their 
presence in such situations, they had doubtless been 
previously in a tadpole condition, from which they 
liad recently emerued. It is a query, however, 
whether thev require as much water as the other 
species, and whether they will not undergo their 
change in extremely humid spots, where water 
trickles freely about, and occasionally gushes up, as 
well as in potids or ditches ; certainly the specimens 
we have seen could not have crawled many yards; 
they were pallid, and slow in their movements. The 
common water-newt is found in clear ponds and 
ditclifs ; ill the spring, the males appear ornamented 
with a continuous merabianous crest from the head 
down the back to the end of the tail ; this crest they 
lose in the month of June or .July, when both adults 
and young quit the water for the land, where they 
creep almut, lodging in damp places, under stones, 
and in crevices of the ground. Early in the winter, 
Ihe crest of the male reajjpears, and is complete in 
the beginning of tiiesprintr, at which time he assumes 
a richer colouring. Aquatic insects and their larvae, 
woims, &:c., constitute the food of this species. The 
female deposits her eggs much in the same manner 
tL» already described, generally within a folded leaf, 
but not unfrefjuently at the junction of the leaf 
with the stalk. Mr. Bell stales that he has some- 
times Been the females in the act of placing their 

Vol. II. 



eggs not only singly, but by two, three, and four 

together. 

In the common newt the skin is smooth ; on the 
head there are two rows of pores, but none on the 
back or sides. The crest of the male is not only 
much developed in the .spring, but the margin is 
crenate, the tips of the crenations being sometimes 
tinged with fine red, sometimes with violet ; the 
general colour above is yellowish or brownish grey, 
bright orange below, and everywhere marked with 
dark spots, some of an ii regular figure. The female 
is yellowish brown, with scattered spots, and without 
the rich oranae of the under surface. The upper lip 
is quite straight. Length, nearly four inches. 

The Straight-lipped Wafer-Newt (jT/i^oii Bibronil, 
Bell) differs from the great water-newt in having 
the upper lip perfectly straight, and not overhanging 
the lower at its sides. Its skin also is more rugous 
and strongly tuberculated, and its colour darker. 
Habits the same as in T. cristatus. 

The Palmated Water-Newt {Lissotriton palmipes, 
Bell) is allied to the common water newt, hom 
which it differs in having the upper lip pendulous at 
the sides, and the toes of the hind feet fringed per- 
manently by a short membrane, which is seen in the 
male of L. punctatus only during the brcedinsr sea- 
son.— (See Fig. 2339- a, the Male; b, the Female.) 
It is also of a larger size, and the spots are more 
numerous and definite. The head also is marked 
with brown longitudinal lines; like the common 
species, however, which it resembles in its habits, it 
is liable to some variations of markings. 

These animals are pro,vincirtlly termed efts, and 
askers. The power which the Salaniandridit possess 
of renewing the limbs and the tail when removed, 
and that repeatedly in succession, is very surprising. 
According to Bonnet, the reproduction of these 
parts is favoured hy heat, and retarded by cold ; in 
one instance, after the total extiipation of an eye,' 
the organ was reproduced, and perfect in its struc- 
ture at the end of a year. Dufay has recorded their 
faculty of remaining frozen in ice fur a long period 
without peiishing. Though we mention these ex- 
periments, which are not without their physiological 
importance, we would distinctly state that their 
repetition for mere curiosity must be condemned as 
wanton and unpardonable cruelty. 

234.1. — The Spotted Salamander 

{Sahmandra mnculusa). Spotted Land-Newt, a, 
the Head in'protile. 

In the genus Salamandra the head is thick ; the 
eyes large ; the gape of the mouth ample ; the 
tongue broad; the palatine teeth arranged in two 
long seiies; the parotid glands large; the body 
sprinkled with many small glands. 

Unlike the aquatic newts the salamander is ovo- 
viviparous, producing living young, which however 
at first inhabit the water and there undergo the same 
changes as do the Tritons; after the completion 
of which they crawl upon the land, frequenting 
humid places, and making their retreats among 
decayed timber in wooded districts, in ditches, 
shaded spots, and crumbling ruins. In its habits it 
is sluggish and inert, and at the same lime timid 
and retiring; it is impatient of the heat of the sun, 
and seldom leaves its lurking-place, except during 
rainy weather, or during the mglit. Its Ibod consists 
of slugs, insects, and worms. As it increases in size 
it sheds its cuticle, which is moulted in flakes, as 
was observed by Dr. Barton. During the winter it 
hyberuates in some hollow tree, or under stones or 
piles of wood, re-appearing in the spring. From 
the tuberculous glands of the skin exudes a milky 
glutinous fluid of an acrid nature like that of the 
toad, and which is evidently a defence against 
enemies ; amongst which may be mentioned snakes 
and large lizards. To try the effects of this fluid, 
Laurenti provoked two grey lizards (Laceita mu- 
ralis) to bite a salamander, when the latter ejected 
from its pores some of this fluid into their mouths ; 
one of the lizards died instantly, the other became 
convulsed and died at the end of two minutes. 
Some of the fluid was introduced into the mouth of 
another lizard, which became convulsed, was para- 
lytic on the whole of one side, and soon died. When 
the animal is irritated this fluid is secreted in large 
quantities, and is ejected, according to Dr. Barton, to 
some distance. There is no reason to believe that 
such animals as dogs would die from the eftects of 
this fluid in their mouths, though, as it is highly 
acrid, they might suft'er more than from the toad. 

Such then are the characters of this animal, the 
dreaded salamandra, which the ancients regarded 
with the utmost horror and aversion. They believed 
its bite to be certainly mortal ; that anything touched 
by its saliva became poisonous, that whoever swal- 
lowed one, or any part of the animal, would instantly 
expire ; nay, that if it crept over a fruit tree, all the 
fruit became deleterious, and that even heibs on 
which the fluid might fall would, if eaten, produce 
the most distressing eftects. This fluid moreover 
was thought to cause the hair of the head to fall oft'. 



To crown all, the salamander was reported not only 
to be capable of resisting the effects of fire, but of 

extinguishing the fire itself, against which it would 
rush as against an enemy. Aristotle, .Lilian, Nican- 
der, Dioscorides, and Pliny, all support this opinion 
with their authority, and portray the salamandra 
both as a most deadly creature and also as incom- 
bustible.* 

When a belief however erroneous becomes cur- 
rent, it is with difficulty eiailicated ; hence are we 
not surprised that the marvellous powers attributed 
to this reptile by the superstitious Greeks and 
Romans continued to be received and propagated 
as facts, through the middle ages and almost to the 
present time ; nor can we wonder that the alchymist 
should consider so potent a creature influential 
in his operations. It was in fact considered as 
having the property of transforming quicksilver into 
gold, and for this purpose it was secured in a vessel, 
and placed upon the fire, while the quicksilver was 
poured through an iron tube upon it ; an experiment 
by which the life of the operator was thought to be 
placed in the utmost peril. 

Cloth made of the skins of the salamander was 
formerly believed to be incombustible, and materials 
said to be of such manufacture were seen by Marco 
Polo, who however discerned that these fireproof 
cloths were made of a mineral substance ; and we 
know that asbestos was termed salamander's wool 
by the old writers. Of such substance we believe 
will the salamander cloth, which we occasionally 
read of, be Ibund to have been composed. 

The spotted salamander is common in France, Italv, 
and the middle and southern countries of Europe 
generally, and probably the adjacent parts of Asia. 
In Gascony it is termed Myrtil, in Savoy Pluvine, in 
Maine Un Sourd. Its colour is black with yellow 
spots and numerous tubercles along the sides. 
There are several other species. 

Fig. 2346 represents the Skeleton of the Sala- 
mander ; a, the Skull seen in profile ; b, seen from 
below. 

The comparison of this skeleton with those of 
Menopoma, Sieboldtia, and that of the great Fossil 
Newt (Andrias Scheuchzeii), proves the close al- 
liance between them. Fig. 2347 exhibits the Skull 
of Meuopoma ; a, seen in profile ; b, seen from 
above ; c, seen from below. Fig. 2348 is the SJiull 
of Sieboldtia seen from below. Fig. 2349, several 
of the Vertebrae of Sieboldtia; and Fig. 2350, the 
Fore-hand of Sieboldtia. Figs. 2351 and 2352 re- 
present the Fossil Relics of Andreas Scheuchzeri. 

Ill a work like the present minute anatomical 
details would be out of place. To those, however, 
who may be interested in the subject we recommend 
the ' Odontography ' by Professor Owen. In that 
splended work is an interesting chapter on the teeth 
of the batracliians, in which the affinities of struc- 
ture presented by the reptiles in question are tho- 
roughly investigated. A comparison of the figures 
we have given will convey to our intelligent reader 
a delinite impression as to the proximity of the ani- 
mals in question. 

2353. — The Menopome 
(Menopoma Atleijaniensis, Harl.). Abranchus, Harl. ; 
Protonopsis, Barton ; Cryptobranchiis, Leukardt and 
Fitzinger; Salamandrops, Wagler. 

This animal is the Tweeg of the Indians. Hel- 
bender Mud Devil, Ground Puppy, and Young Alli- 
gator of the Anglo-Americans; Fisch Salamander 
of the Germans. Referring to the figure, a re- 
presents the mouth open, showing the tongue and 
teeth. Fig. 2354 is the upper surface of the head 
of the Menopome in outline. 

In this species, the only known representative of 
the genus, the head is flat and broad ; there are 
two concentric rows of teeth in the upper jaw ; the 
inner row are palatine ; on each side of the neck is 
an operculum (probably the relic of the branchial 
apparatus and opening), situated about hallway 
between the angle of the mouth and the foreleg. 
There are here three opercular cartilages, and the 
aperture is betvN'eeii the posterior two. The limbs 
are thort and thick, and fimbriated on the outer 
edge ; toes four on the anterior feet, five on the 
hinder ; the tail is laterally compressed : a fold of 
puckered skin runs down each side of the neck and 
body. This animal, which is about two feet in 
lenglh, is a native of the Ohio and Alleghany rivers ; 
Michaux appears to have been the first traveller 
who noticed it. He states that in the torrents of 
the Alleghanies is found a species of salamander, 
termed by the inhabitants Alligator of the Mountains, 
and that some are two feet in length. In its habits 
this animal is extremely fierce and voracious, sparing 
nothing that it can overcome and devour. It is 
believed by the fishermen to be poisonous, and is 
consequently much dreaded; so revolting indeed is 
its aspect, that we can little wonder at their feelings 

* We must except Galen, who knew that the reptile would liurn; 
anil we may aiU tliat Matthioltis, a commentator on UiOionilca, saw 
one liestroycd by lire. lie lived in tlie 1 Glh century. 

S 2 





Jul) !»• 




M44,— I^iUge of Yeanf Water Newt. 




i339.^-Common Smooth Newts. 




13<6.— Skeleton of SJamender. 





23>0.— Fore hand of Sleboldtia. 



: 3i:. — Si otrel Saiamandcr. 





SS47.— Skull of Menopome. 




2349.— Vertebra of Sleboldtii. 




2J4S.— Skull ofSiebo'dtia. 



iUS.— Menopoaie. 



132 




2354.— Head of Menopome. 




23 i8.— Three-toed Amphiuma. 





2355.— Tooth of LabvTini hcdon 




2356.— Fossil Relics of Labyrinthodon. 



\ ^• 




^^^>^^^ 




a357.— Footprints of Labyrinthodon. 





236!.— Skulls and Vertebra of Proteus. 




2351.— Great Fossil Salamander. 



Sib'Jt — Pioteus. 




23'8. --Gre.it Fossil Sjlamander. 



133 



134 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Newts. 



of dislike and apprehension. Much in its history 
vet remains to be cleared up ; we know nothing of 
Its tadpole state or of its transfoimations. Its 

general colour is slaty, with dark spots, and a dark j 

line through the eyei>. < 

With respect to the Sieboldtia maxima of the i 

Prince of Canino(.Me)ralol)atrachus,T8chudi; Crvp- i 

tobranchus, Van der Hoevea;, it may be described | 

as a gigantic salamander, three feet in length, inha- i 

biting a lake on a ba^ltic mountain in Japan, where ' 

the species was discovered by Dr. Von Sieboldt, who : 

bioauht away two individuals, a male and female, i 

but the former devoured the latter during the passage | 

homewards ; the survivor arrived in Leyden, where : 

it was lately living, and perhaps is so still. It feeds , 

on fishes. In this reptile, as in the true newts, the | 

slils of the branchial apertures are closed, and not | 

open at in Menopoma. In the Zool. Proceeds, for I 

March 13, 1S38, will be found the notice of a letter | 

from .M. Van der Iloeven respecting it, with some i 
observations by Professor Owen. 

23r)l, 2352. — The Gigantic Fossil Saxauaxdkk ! 

{AtidrUif Scheiiclueri. Tschudi). 

From the Sieboldlia we turn to the fossil relics of | 
n closely allied species, which has been extinct for I 
ages. 1 

11 was in the Philosophical Transactions for 172C, ] 
that Dr. Scneuchzer published a short account of a | 
li.is.sil received by him from the (Eningen beds (the I 
iiiiocene period of Lyell). which he firmly believed I 
to be that of a human being, and na such was it { 
received by the naturalists of his day. It was the \ 
" homo dil'uvii testis," a rare relic of one of that ac- \ 
cursed people buried by the flood, or, to use the i 
words of Sc-heuclizer in his ' Physica Sacra,' " \fl- \ 
^arar malcdiotie illius et aquis sepultsc gentis." 

The ruling passion of this physician was to collect ' 
fossils which might be considered as evidences of the 
deluge ; hence, carried away by his favourite theory, 
when he looked at the fossil in question, he forgot the 
osteology of the human body, or viewed tfie bones 
imbedded in the stone through the distorted optics 
of an excited imagination. In 1755, another spe- 
cimen came into the possession of Gesner, and though 
he rejiudiated the idea of the relics beins; those of 
man, yet he fell into an error in attributing them to 
a species of fish (Silurus Glanis, Linn.). A third 
and more complete specimen, now in the British 
Museum, came into the hands of Dr. Ammann of 
Zurich, a fisruie of which was published by Karg in 
the ' Memoirs of the Society of Naturalists of 
Suabia,' and still under the idea of its being a fossil 
silurus. That this opinion was erroneous, .Jiiger 
demonstrated by placintr a figure of the Silurus 
Glanis by the side of Karg's figure of the fossil, 
and at once dispelled the illusion. On looking at 
Karg's figure, Cuvier at once perceived that the 
characters were those of the Salamandridae, an 
opinion which had been entertained by M. Kiel- 
meyer and by Camper, who, as .liiger says, observed 
in a letter to Burton, that a petrified lizard has been 
able to pass for an anthropolite (fossil man). In 1811, 
Cuvier visited Haarlem, and obtained permission to 
work upnn the stone which contained Scheuchzer's 
" homo diluvii testis." He placed the skeleton of a 
salamander before the operatore, who, as the chisel 
chipped away the stone, exposing the bones to view, 
beheld with delight the predictions of Cuvier veri- 
fied. The remains were indeed those of a gigantic 
salamander, to which the Sieboldtia bears the 
nearest affinity. 

From this fossil form among the Salamandridae, we 
must now turn to another, namely, the Labyrin- 
thodon of Professor Owen (Salamandroides, Jiiger ; 
Mastodonsaurus, Phytosaurus, Chirotherium) ; and 
to render the subject clear, we shall first advert to 
Fiir. 23.55, a transverse section of the tooth of Laby- 
rinthodon, with a portion of the same magnified. 
Premising that the reptilian remains in question 
occur in the Warwick sandstone, and in the Keuper 
of Germany, we shall take an extract from the ' Pro- 
ceeds. Geol. Society of I>ond.' for 1841. 

"Before he proceeded to describe the fossils 
forming the immediateobject of his paper, Mr. Owen 
showed that the genus Phytosaurus was established 
on the casts of the sockets of the teeth of Mastodon- 
saurus, and that the latter generic appellation ought 
not to be retained, because it recalls unavoidably the 
idea of the mammalian genus Mastodon, or else a 
mammilloid form of the tooth, whereas all the teeth 
of the genus so designated are originally, and for 
the greater number, permanently of a cuspidate and 
not of a mammilloid form ; and because the second 
element of the word, saurus, indicates a false affinity, 
the remains beloni;ing not to the Saurian, but to the 
Batrachian onler of reptiles. For these reasons, and 
believing that he had discovered the true and pecu- 
liarly distinctive denial characters of the fossil, he 
proposed to designate the genus by the term Laby- 
linthodon. 

" The only portions of the Batrachian found in the 
Keuper of Germany which have hitherto been de- 



scribed, consist of teeth, a fragment of the skull, and 
a few broken vertebrs : and in the Warwick sand- 
stone, of teeth only. In this memoir, therelore, Mr. 
Owen confined his attention to a comparison of the 
dental structure of the Continental and English 
remains." 

Professor Owen then enters into the minutie of 
structural details, and concludes by observing that 
" if on the one hand geology has in this instance 
really derived any aid from minute anatomy, on the 
other hand in no instance has the comparative ana- 
tomist been more indebted to geology, than for the 
fossils which have revealed the most singular and 
complicated modification of dental structure hitherto 
known, and of which not the slightest conception 
could have been gained from an investigation, how- 
ever close and extensive, of the teeth of existing 
animals." 

Referring to the Fig. 2355, we may observe that 
the small circle shows a section of the tooth of Laby- 
rinthodon Jaegeri, Owen, of the natural size; the 
other is a quarter of the same circle magnified; a, 
is the pulp-cavity from which the processes of pulp 
and dentine radiate ; b l>, the cement. From the 
tooth of Labyrinthodon, we may now pass to Figs. 
2.35G and 21)57, the relics and foot-jirints of a species 
termed Labyrinthodon I'achysrnathus. Impressions 
made by the footsteps of animals, ripple-marks, and 
little pits formed by the drops of a heavy shower, 
have been found at different times on the surface of 
various strata of sandstone, both in this and other 
countries, as well as in beds of comparatively recent 
formation in various parts of the kingdom ; for ex- 
ample, in Pembrokeshire, on making excavations 
for a dock at Penibray, the tracks of deer and large 
oxen were discovered on a layer of clay underlying a 
bed of peat, and also on the surface of the peat itself 
below a bed of silt, bones of the animals themselves 
occurring in the peat. We learn also Irom Dr. 
Buckland, that in excavations made for a harbour 
near Margam Burrows, on the east of Neath, foot- 
marks of deer have been observed. With respect 
to ancient strata, tracks of tortoises have been found 
impressed on the sandstone in the quarry of Corn- 
Cockle Muir, Dumfriesshire, as described in Trans. 
Royal Soc. Edin., 1828: and in 1831, Mr. G. P. 
Scrope found numerous foot-prints of small animals, 
probably Crustacea, and ripple-marks in the beds of 
forest marble near Bath. The impressions of birds' 
feet have been discovered on the surface of sandstone 
in the valley of the Connecticut, and fossil bones of 
birds have occurred in the strata of Tilgate forest, 
antecedent to the chalk formation. To come, how- 
ever, to the foot-prints of the Labyrinthodon, or as 
it was provisionally termed by Kaup, the Chiro- 
therium, from the supposed resemblance in the 
marks both of the fore and hind feet to those of a 
human hand, and which he thought might have been 
derived from some quadruped allied to the Marsu- 
pialia. 

It was in Saxony at the village of Hesseburg 
near Hildburghausen, that these fossil footsteps 
were first discovered in several quarries of grey 
quartzose sandstone alternating with beds of red 
sandstone, nearly of the use of the red sandstone of 
Corn-Cockle Muir. Dr. Hohnbaum and Professor 
Kaup state that those impressions of feet are partly 
concave and partly in relief; the depressions are 
described as being upon the upper surfaces of the 
sandstone slabs, but the footmarks in relief are only 
upon the lower surfaces, and cover the depressions. 
In short, the footmarks in relief are natural casts 
formed in the subjacent (ootsteps as in moulds. 
On one slab, six feet long by five feet wide, many 
footsteps of more than one animal and of various 
sizes occur. The larger impressions, which seem to 
be those of the hind foot, are generally eight inches 
in length and five in width, and one was twelve 
inches long. Near each large footstep, and at a 
regular distance (about an inch and a half) belbre 
it, a smaller print of a fore foot, four inches long 
and three feet wide, occurs. The footsteps follow 
each other in pail's, each pair in the same line, at 
intervals of fourteen inches from pair to pair. The 
large as well as the small steps show the great toes 
alternately on the ris;ht and left side ; each step 
makes the print of five toes, the first or great toe 
being bent inward like a thumb. Thougii the fore 
and hind foot differ so much in size, they are nearly 
similar in form. 

But these footsteps are not confined to foreign 
lands, and within the last few years able observers 
have contributed largely to this interesting subject. 
Dr. Buckland thus sums up the evidence oblained 
in this country : — Near Liverpool Mr. Cunningham 
has successfully continued his researches begun in 
18;J8, respecting the foot.steps of Chirotherium and 
other animals in the new red sandstone at Storeton 
Hill, on the west .side of the Mersey. These foot- 
steps occur on five consecutive beds of clay in the 
same quarry ; the clay-beds are very thin : and 
having received the iniiiressious of the feet, afforded 
a series of moulds in which casts were taken by 



the succeeding deposits of sand, now converted 
into sandstone. The casts of the feet are salient in 
high relief on the lower surlaces of the t)eds of sand- 
stone, giving exact models of the feet and toes and 
claws of these mysterious animals, of which scarcely 
a single bone or tooth has yet been found, although 
we are assured by the evidence before us of tlie 
certainty of their existence at the time when the 
new red sandstone was in process of deposition. 
Further discoveries of the footsteps of Chirotherium 
and five or six smaller leptiles in the new led 
sandstone of Cheshire, Warwickshire, and Salop, 
have been brought before us by Sir P. Egeiton, 
Mr. J. Taylor, jun., Mr. Strickland, and Dr. Ward. 
Mr. Cunningham, in a sequel to his paper on the 
footmarks at Storeton, has described impres<ioiis 
on the same slabs with them, derived from drops 
of rain that fell upon thin laminae of clay interposed 
between the beds of .sand. The clay impre.-sea ivilh 
these prints of rain-drops acted as a mould, which 
transferred the form of every drop to the lower 
surface of the next bed of sand deposited upon it, 
so that entire surfaces of several strata in the same 
quarry are respectively covered with moulds and 
casts of drops of rain that fell whilst the strata weie 
in process of formation. On the surface of one 
stratum at Storeton, impressed with large footmarks 
of a Chirotherium, the depth of the holes formed 
by the rain-drops on different parts of the same 
footstep has vaiied with the unequal auiouut of 
pressure on the clay and sand, by the salient cushions 
and retiring hollows of the creature's foot ; and 
from the constancy of this phenomenon upon an 
entire series of footmarks in along continuous track, 
we know that this rain fell alter the animal had 
passed. The equable size of the cnsts of large drop* 
that cover the entire surface of the slab, except lu 
the parts impressed by the cushions of the feet, 
record the falling of a shower of heavy drops on the 
day in which this huge animal had marched along 
the ancient strand: hemispherical impressions of 
small drops, upon another stratum, show it to have 
been exposed to only a sprinkling of gentle rain 
that fell at a moment of calm. In one small slab 
of new red sandstone found by Dr. Ward near 
Shrewt-bury, we have a combination of proofs as to 
meteoric, hydrostatic, and locomotive phenomena, 
which occurred at a time incalculably remote, i:i 
the atmosphere, the water, and the movements of 
animals, and from which we infer, with the certainty 
of cumulative circumstantial evidence, the direction 
of the wind, the depth and course of the wafer, and 
the quarter towards which the animals were passing ; 
the latter is indicated by the direction of the foot- 
steps which form their tracks; the size and cur- 
vatures of the ripi)l>:-marks on the sand, now con- 
verted to sandstone, show the depth and direction 
of the current; the oblique impressions of the rain- 
drops register the point from which the wind was 
blowing at or about the time when the animals were 
passing." 

The Address from which the above passage is 
taken was delivered at the anniversary of ilie Geo- 
logical Society of London on the 21sl February, 
1840 ; and at that time all was conjecture as to the 
nature of the animal called Chirotherium. Pro- 
fessor Owen'spaper, read on the 20ih January, 1841, 
proved the existence of a gigantic Batrachian at 
the period when the new red sandstone was formed. 
Scarcely was that memoir communicated, when 
additional materials of the highest impoitance were 
brought forward by the liberal possessors of them, 
and the result was a second paper, read belbre the 
Geological Society of London on the 24th of February, 
in which three species of Labyrintiiodon were 
defined, and evidence relating to the ichnology* of ] 
those extinct I5atrachians was adduced, which may 
be briefly stated as Ibllows : — 

1st. Proof from the skeleton that Labyrinthodon 
had hind extremities much larger than the anterior 
extremities. 

2nd. That the foot-prints of Chirotherium are at 
least as much like those of certain toads as those of 
any other animals. 

3:d. That the size of the known species of Laby- 
rinthodon corresponds with the size of the foot- 
£ tints of the different species of Clurollierium : e. ff. 
abyriuthodon Jaegeri, with the Ibot-pnnt of Cliiro- 
theruim Hercules (Egeiton) ; Labuinlhodon pa- 
chygnathus, with tiie foot-marks of the common 
Chirotherium; and Labyrinthodon leplognathus, 
with the impressions of the smaller batrachian 
figured in the memoir by Mr. Murchison and Mr. 
Strickland. 

4th. Labyrinthodon occurs in the new red sand- 
stone strata, to which Chirotherian impressions are 
peculiar. And 

Lastly, no remains of animals that could have 
lell such imijipssions as those of the Chirotherium 
have been found in these strata, except the remains 
of the Labyrinlhodons. 

♦ 'Ixfos, a footstep ; \iyos, a discourse. 



Proteus, Sec] 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



135 



The reading: of Professor Owen's last memoir was 
Rccompanied by the exhibition of a diagram repre- 
sentinsr ajestorationoftwo species of Labyrinthodon, 
one of which, L. Pachysrnatluis, is copied on a greatly 
reduced scale ; Fisrs. iSSG and 2357. The bones 
which appear within the outline ars those which 
were known when the paper was read. The animal 
is represented as impressing its footsteps on a shore 
of sand, now new red sandstone. There is reason 
for believing: that this formidable batrachian was 
not smooth externally, but that it was protected 
on certain parts at least by bony plates. Specimens 
of the footprints may be seen both in the British 
?.Iusenm and in the Museum of the Royal College 
of Surgeons, London. 

Family AMPHIUMID.'E (AMPHIUMA). 

2358. — The Three-toed AmphUjMa 

{Amphivmn trirncti/him). Two species of Am- 
phiuma onlv are Unown : they inhal)it the sfairnant 
pools and ditches of Louisiana, Georgia. Florida, 
and South Carolina, and great numbers are often 
found in clearing out ponds, buried deep in the mud 
at the bottom. 

In these Amphibia, as in Menopoma, no bran- 
chioj have been found, but an orifice exists in each 
side of the neck, demonstrating their existence at 
some previous period. The body is extremely long, 
and covered with a smooth skin, which, together 
with their general form, gives them an eel-like 
appearance ; the limbs are four in number, but 
extremely minute; in one species the toes on each 
Jimb are three in number, in the other only two; 
they are little jointless divisions. There are no 
ribs, and the vertebrae resemble in their structure 
those of fishes ; the eyes are very small ; there are 
two longitudinal ranges of palatal teeth. These 
animals are essentially formed for the water, where 
they obtain their prey; on the approach of winter 
they bury themselves in the mud and there hybernate, 
occasionally however they creep on land, and 
burrow in spongy places, or under decaying logs, or 
fallen trunks of trees in swamps and marshes. Dr. 
Harlan, speaking of the small two-toed species, says, 
'■ I am informed by Major Wace, that they are some- 
times discovered two or three feet under mud of the 
consistence of mortar, in which they burrow like 
worms, as was instanced in digging near a street in 
Pensacola, where great numbers were thrown up 
during the winter season. It is called in Florida 
the Congo snake by the negroes, who believe it to 
be poiscmous, but without foundation. 

The three-toed ampbiuma attains the length of 
three feet ; the two-toed is only about eighteen 
inches long. 

We may now pass to the Perennibranchiate 
Amphibia, in which while the lungs are developed 
the branchiae remain, whence the animals are ca- 
pable of respiring both air and water. 

Family PROTEID^ (PROTEUS, AXOLOTL, &c.). 

2353, 2360.— The Proteus 

(Profeits anguinus, Lawr.). Hypochton anguinus, 
jVIerrem. 

This curious animal, interesting alike from its 
structure and extraordinary abode, has greatlv ex- 
cited the attention of scientific men, who have 
diligently investigated its structure. We may de- 
scribe it as a slender, elongated reptile, with a smooth 
and delicate skin, with a compressed tail, with a de- 
pressed head, and with four short feeble and almost 
useless limbs. The mouth is wide, and the jaws are 
armed with teeth ; the eyes are mere rudimentary 
points covered by the skin ; the fore-limbs are fur- 
nished with three toes, the hind-limbs with two. The 
branchiae or gills are exposed, and form two pink 
tufis, one on each side of the occiput. The move- 
ments of the animal are eel-like. Deep under ground, 
in subterranean waters, where no ray of light ever 
penetrates, does the Proteus dwell ; light, indeed, is 
toogreat a stimulus for the creature to bear: we have 
hail opportunities of observing these singular ani- 
mals in confinement, and always noticed, tliat they 
shrouded themselves in the darkest part of the 
vessel in which they were placed, when the covering 
■ was taken off in order to inspect them: and that 
they tietrayed a sense of unea.siness l)y their actions, 
when exposed to the light of open day, creeping 
round the sides of tlie vessel, or under the shelter 
of any substance which threw a partial shadow on 
the water. Their colour was that of pale flesh ; 
but alter a short exposure to light, the skin assumed 
a darker tint, and the branchial lulls became of a 
deeper red. 

Though these animals lived many months, and 
were healthy and vigorous, they were not supplied 



with any food, nor know we on what they subsist, 
though we have every reason to believe them car- 
nivorous. 

It is trom two or perhaps three localities only that 
the Proteus has been obtained. At Adclshurg, lutlie 
duchy of Carniola, belonging to Austria, there is one 
of the most extraordinary caverns in Europe, ex- 
tending many hundred feet below the surl'ace, 
termed the Grotto of the Maddiilena. The district 
around this cavern consists of bold rocks and moun- 
tains of liinestone Ibrmation. Beneath these, at an 
enormous depth, are subterranean cavities, and im- 
mense reservoirs of water, buried lakes, whence 
many rivr^rs take (heir secret origin ; and it is from 
this vast reservoir that a small lake in the grotto of 
Maddalena is supplied, a lake in pitchy darkness, 
on which no sunbeam ever plays, enclosed by awful 
masses of rock, with ril'ts and chasms on every 
side, and above a canopy of drooping stalactites. 
On the soft nuid below the w.-.tei of this little lake, 
these singular creatures may be seen moving like 
small eels, endeavouring to tscape the unnatural 
glare of torch-light. Jt is not here, however, that 
the Protei are bred, nor are they always to be 
found, and it is only alter great rains th:-it they are 
abundant. Besides this cavern at Adelsburg, where 
they were first discovered by the late Uarou Ziiis, they 
have been found, though rarely, at Sitiich, thiity 
miles distant, thrown up by water from a subter- 
ranean cavity, and Sn- II. Davy says : " I have lately 
heard it reported that some individuals of the same 
species have been recognised in the calcareous strala 
of Sicily." With regaid to their original abode, we 
agree with the same eminent writer ; his words are, 
"I think it cannot be doubted that their natural 
residence is in an extensive deep subterranean lake, 
from which in great floods they are sometimes forced 
through the crevices of the rocks into this place 
where they are found ; and it does not appear to me 
impossible, when the peculiar nature of tiie country 
is considered, that the same great cavity may furnish 
the individuals which have been found at Adelsburg 
and at Sittich." 

Many have entertained the idea that these ani- 
mals are tadpoles, or the larvae of some unknown 
creature ir.habiting the subterranean waters ; this 
idea is, however, sufficiently proved to be incorrect : 
they are perfect animals with gills and lungs. "This 
animal is, 1 dare say, much larger than we now see it, 
when mature in its native place, but its comparative 
anatomy is exceedingly hostile to the idea that it is 
an animal in a state of transition. It has been 
found of various sizes, from the thickness of a quill 
to that of the thumb, but its form of organs has been 
always the same. And it adds one instance more 
to the numbers already known of the wonderful 
manner in which life is produced and perpetuated 
in every part of our globe, even in places which 
seem the least suited to organized existences." 

Referring to Fig. 2359, a represents the Skull, 
half the natural size; b, the bones of the Fore-foot. 
Fig. 2361 represents the Skull of the Proteus and 
three first vertebrae — «, as seen from below ; b, as 
seen from above. Fig. '23C2 represents the Skeleton 
of the Proteus — a, the Bones of the Fore-foot ; h, the 
Bones of the Hind-leg. 

23G3. — The Striated Siren 

(SiVra striata). 

The Sirens are eel-like animals utterly destitute 
of hinder limbs, and the fore-limbs are reduced to 
small feeble rudiments, with four or three toes. 
There are three plumed gill-tufts on each side ; the 
head is small and flattened, the muzzle blunt; the 
eye is minute. There are ranges of teeth on the 
palate; the lower jaw is furnished with teeth, but 
not the upper. The vertebrae, which are very pe- 
culiar in form, have their articular faces hollow and 
united by cartilages, in the form of a double cone, as 
in fishes. 

F"ig. 2364 represents the Skeleton of Siren la- 
certina. Fig. 2365 the Head and Fore-limb — a, one 
of the dorsal vertebrae seen behind ; o, the same seen 
before. 

Of these animals, three species appear to be 
known, viz. : Siren lacertina, S. intermedia, and S. 
striata. The Lacertine Siren grows to the length 
of three feet, and has lour toes on each foot. It in- 
habits the marshy grounds of Carolina, especially 
tliose where rice is cultivated, and lives in ttie mud, 
or muddy water, and occasionally crawls on the 
dry ground. Worms and insects are its food, but 
Dr. Garden, who discovered it in 1765, and sent a 
specimen to Linnaeus, asserts that it will devour 
snakes, and also state's tluit it utters a sound like 
the voice of a young duck ; both these points, how- 
ever, are denied by Barton ; its colour is blackish. 

In 1841, a lively specimen was living in the 



Zoological Gardens. It was kept in a vessel ot 
pond-water, with a deep bottom of mud, in which 
it buried itself; it fed upon earth-worms, devouiing 
a dozen and a half every other day. It was about 
twenty inches long, and very eel-like in all its move- 
ments. 

The Siren striata is a small species, about nine 
inches long, with three toes only on each foot. It 
is ol'ablackish colour, with two longitudinal vellow 
stri|iesdown each side. At F"ig. 2363, a shows the 
Head, Branchiie, and Fore-foot." 

According to the testimony of various microsco- 
pic observers (Professors Wagner, Van der Hoeven, 
Owen, &c.), the magnitude of the blood globules 
in the perennibranchiate amphibia is very extra- 
ordinary. In the Proteus, indeed, they "may be 
observed by the naked eye ; in the Siren, as ob- 
served by Professor Owen, they are also very large, 
forming a great contrast to those of liigher rejitilcs, 
birds, and mammalia. Fig. 2366 shows a compari- 
son, by Professor Oweu, ot the blood-discs of Man 
and the Siren, drawn by the Camera lucida under a 
magnifying power of seven hundred linear dimen- 
sions, a, Human Blood-discs ; (/. the same viewed 
edgewise : b, Siren's Blood-discs ; //, the same viewed 
edgewise : c. Folds of External Capsule, produced 
by desiccation ; d, Capsule of Nucleus j e, Nu- 
cleoli. 

2367.— The Necturus 

(JVectums lateralis, Rafinesque). Menobranchiis 
lateralis, Harlan ; Phaiierobranchus lateralis, Kilzin. 

In the genus Necturus (Menobranchus, Harlan) 
the body is modera'ely elongated, the tail flattened 
at the sides, the branchial plumes large ; there is a 
row of palatal teeth, and a parallel biit more ex- 
tensive row of maxillary teeth. The limbs are four 
in number, very small, with four toes each. 

I'he Necturus lateralis inhabits the great lakes 
of North America, and attains to the length of two 
or three feet. Its general colour above is olive with 
blackish dots; a line along the muzzle blackish; 
under-parts blackish, variegated with spots of olive. 
Of its habits little is known. 

2368, 236D.— The Axolotl 

(Siredon pisciformis, Wagler). Siren pisciformis, 
Shaw; Gyrinus edulis, Hernandez; Menobranchus 
pisciformis, Harlan. 

This fish-like amphibian is remarkable for the 
three long fringed processes on each side of the 
neck, forming conspicuous gill-tuits. The limbs 
are four; the anterior are furnished with lour toes, 
the hinder with five; there are teeth in both jaws 
as well as palatal teeth, aggregated in numeious 
rows, and rasp-like, as in certain fishes ; the tail is 
compressed at the sides like that of a water-newt, 
and furnished above and below by a membianous 
fin ; the muzzle is blunt, and the eyes are small. 

Referring to Fig. 2369, the sketch accompanying 
the figure represents the Under Jaw and Throat of 
the animal as seen from beneath, in order to show 
the singular form of the gills. At Fig. 2368— a re- 
presents the Mouth open, and viewed in front, to 
show the teeth. 

The Axolotl is a native of Mexico, and common 
in the lake surrounding the city of that name; and 
according to Baron Humboldt is also found in cold 
\vaters of mountain lakes at a much greater eleva- 
tion above the level of the sea than the plain in 
which the city of Mexico is situated. Tliis animal 
is commonly sold in the markets of that city, and 
is esteemed a luxury by the inhabitants ; it is dressed 
alter the manner of stewed eels, and served up with 
a rich sauce. Hernandez says that it is agreeable 
and v\'holesome. For a long time the Axolotl was 
regarded as the tadpole or larva of some unknown 
batrachian, and was so regarded by Cuvier, till he 
prepared the last edition of his ' Rcgne Animal,' 
and even there he seems to retain a degree of 
doubt respecting it. His words in a note are, "Ce 
n'est encore qu'avec doute que je place I'Axolotl 
parmi les genres a branchies pernianentes ; mar. 
tant de temoins assurent qu'il ne les peid pas, que 
je ray vols obligfi." 

Repeated observations, however, have fully es- 
tablished the fact that the Axolotl is truly a perenni- 
branchiate amphibian : Humboldt, in his ' Observa- 
tions de Zoologie,' has entered into minute details 
of its anatomy. 

The length of the Axolotl is eight or ten inches : 
the general colour is uniform deep greyish brown, 
everywhere thickly mottled with small round black 
spots. The communicalions which open from the 
gills into the mouth are four in number and of a 
size considerably larger than in the allied genera. 
They are covered externally by a species of oper- 
culum formed by a fold in the skin of the head. 



END OF THE CLASS REPTILES. 




I3ta— ProMaa. 




aMa— Sinsdon, or Aiolotl. 






*^%1!L 





i3(C.— Blood <)»« ct Man and Siren. 





«S<8.— StiiUnl Siiea. 



23M.— Skeleton of Piotcui. 



;3<i.— Head, Stc, of Stria! ed Sires. 








!3«4.— Skeleton of SUialet) Sdien. 



S3t3.- Siiedon, or Azololl. 



136 







2370 — Leptdosiren. 




2374. — T»i'» of Fi»hes. 



S377.— Group of Fiihw 




S:l73.— Skeleton of Perch. 




237t Nativei ofNootka Sound. 





2375. — J«W3 of Trout. 




2372.— Swlmmingblrddcri of Ltace •rd Conger Eel. 

No. 68. Vol. II. 



[THE MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE.] 



2376.— Depths of the Sea. 

137 



138 



MUSEUM OF ANIMATED NATURE. 



[Fishes, 



CLASS PISCES (FISHES). 



Bkfork we enter kt lurjfe upon the present cia»s, 
we mu»t call attention to a sinsfular form, I^piilo- 
•iren, xvhich by »ome naturalists is referred to the 
Perennibranchiate Amphibia, and by others to the 
fishes. 

It was in the year 1837 that Professor Natterer 
obtained two specimens, one found in a swamp un 
the left bank of the river Amazon in South America, 
the other taken in a pond near Borba, on the river 
Madeira, a tributary to the Amazon. The descrip- 
tion of these was published in the 'Annals of the 
Museum of Vienna,' under the title of " Lepidosiren 
paradoxH." In the same year an allied species wag 
presented to the Koyal College of Surgeons by 
Thomas C. B. Weir, Esq., toitether with a smaller 
dried specimen enclosed in indurated clay baked 
hard in the sun ; it was brought from the river 
Gambia in Africa : and under the generic title of 
Protopterus was described by Professor Owen in the 
MS. catalogue of the Museum R. Cott. S., and more 
fully in the ' Linnean Trans.' (vol. xviii. pt. 3, p. 327), 
under the title of Lepidosiren annectans, the generic 
term proposed by Dr. Natterer being adopted. Of 
this species from Gambia Fig. 2370 is a represen- 
tation. 

In both species the body is fish-like, and covered 
Mrith scales ; there are mucous pores and ducts upon 
the head, and a series of pores around each eye : 
whence the lateral line, seen in fishes, commences; 
the muzzle is obtuse ; the branchial apertures are 
narrow vertical slits; the eyes are small; the nos- 
trils are situated at the under part of the upper lip 
(which is fleshy), and lead, as m fishes, to two sacs, 
which have no communication with the mouth, and 
are not respiratory organs ; there are two slender, 
sharp-pointed, recurved teeth in the intermaxillary 
bone, and the alveolar border of both the upper and 
lower jaws is armed with a strong trenchant dental 
plate, soldered to the bone, and divided at the 
middle line, so as to form two distinct portions above, 
and two below ; each of these portions is twice 
indented, so as to present three angular acute pro- 
cesses, adapted for piercing; and the strength of 
the jaws, and size of the muscles which work them, 
prove that they are efficient instruments. There 
are no palatal teeth. The limbs are represented by 
four tentacular appendages, many-jointed in the 
African species, not jointed in the American. A 
dorsal fin, supported by numerous soft elastic trans- 
parent rays, commences about one-third of the dis- 
tance from the head, and runs to the extremity of 
the tail, which is furnished underneath with a simi- 
lar fin ; but there is no expanded caudal fin as in 
fishes generally. The skeleton is partly cartilagi- 
nous, partly bony, and the osseous portions are of a 
green colour as in the Gar-fish. 

With branchiae or gills approaching in structure 
those of the Perennibranchiate amphibia, the Lepi- 
dosiren also possesses lungs, and, as there is reason 
to believe, breathes, occasionally at least, atmos- 
pheric air. In some specimens of the African Le- 
pidosiren two minute tentacles accompany each of 
the pectoral or anterior ones. The heart possesses 
a double auricle in the South American species, and 
the skeleton is more cartilaginous. 

The Lepidosiren paradoxa from South America 
attains to a considerable size ; one of Dr. Natterers 
specimens measured upwards of three feet in length, 
and the other nearly two. 

The Lepidosiren annectans from the Gambia 
does not much exceed a foot in length. The speci- 
men, a female, described by Professor Owen in the 
' Linn. Trans.' vol. xviii. part 3, measured twelve 
inches eight lines. From the fisli-Iike contour of 
these animals we may easily form an idea of their 
progressive motion through the water, and it is pro- 
bable that the tentacular appendages may enable 
them to raise themselves upon aquatic plants, or 
even to crawl up the banks of the pond or river. 

In a notice respecting these singular creatures by 
Sir W. .lardine, in the ' Ann. and Mag. of Nat. 
Hist.,' March, 1841, p. 25, he says, in reference to 
the African species: — " If the structure of this ani- 
mal is remarkable, so also are some habits in iis 
economical history ; but we have to regret that our 
history on these points is still very imperfect." 

Miss Weir, in allowing us to examine the speci- 
mens of the fish, accompanied them with the follow- 
ing note, and a piece of the hard clay, alluded to in 
the ' Trans. Linn. Soc.,' bearing the impression of 
the animal, as if it had lain for some time imbedded 
in it, and with the earth in such a state as to allow 
the form of the cast to be retained. " Fish taken in 
the summer of 1835 on the shore of Macarthy's 
Island, about three hundred and iifty miles up the 
river Gambia. They were found about eighteen 
inches below the surface of the ground, which, du- 



I ring nine months in the year, is perfectly dry and 
I hard ; the remaining three months it is under water. 
I When dug out of the ground and put into water 
I the fish immediately unfold themselves and com- 
I mense swimming about. They are dug up with 
sharp st